China's Efforts and Achievements in Promoting the Rule of Law

中国的法治建设

【法宝引证码】

Issuing authority： State Council Information Office
Date issued： 02-28-2008

China's Efforts and Achievements in Promoting the Rule of Law (Xinhua) -- The Information Office of the State Council published a white paper titled China's Efforts and Achievements in Promoting the Rule of Law here Thursday. Following is the full text: China's Efforts and Achievements in Promoting the Rule of Law Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China February 2008, Beijing		中国的法治建设（中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室二○○八年二月·北京）
Contents		目录
Foreword		前言
I. Historical Course of Building a Socialist Country under the Rule of Law		一、建设社会主义法治国家的历史进程
II. Legislation and Legal System with Chinese Characteristics		二、中国特色的立法体制和法律体系
III. Legal Systems of Respecting and Safeguarding Human Rights		三、尊重和保障人权的法律制度
IV. Legal Systems Regulating the Order of the Market Economy		四、规范市场经济秩序的法律制度
V. Administration by Law and Building a Government under the Rule of Law		五、依法行政与建设法治政府
VI. Judicial System and Fair Administration of Justice		六、司法制度与公正司法
VII. Popularization and Education of the Law		七、普法和法学教育
VIII. International Exchange and Cooperation in Legal Construction		八、法治建设的国际交流与合作
Conclusion Appendix List of Current Effective Laws of the People's Republic of China		结束语附录：中华人民共和国现行有效法律分类目录（229件）
Foreword The rule of law signifies that a political civilization has developed to a certain historic stage. As the crystallization of human wisdom, it is desired and pursued by people of all countries. The Chinese people have made protracted and unremitting struggles for democracy, freedom, equality and the building of a country under the rule of law. They know well the significance and value of the rule of law, and thus cherish the fruits they have achieved in building China into a country under the rule of law. The rule of law in a country is determined by and conforms to its national conditions and social system. To govern the country according to law and build a socialist country under the rule of law is the Chinese people's demand, pursuit and practice. The Communist Party of China (CPC) has led the Chinese people in successfully opening up the road of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Along this road, China, in line with the objective requirements arising in the course of continuous economic, political, cultural and social development, has upheld the organic unity of the CPC's leadership, the position of the people as masters of the country and law-based governance, stuck to the principle of people first, advocated the spirit of the rule of law, fostered the idea of democracy and rule of law, freedom and equality, fairness and justice, developed and improved the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics, promoted the exercise of administrative functions in accordance with the law in all respects, deepened the reform of the judicial system, perfected the mechanism of restraint of and supervision over the use of power, guaranteed the citizens' lawful rights and interests, maintained social harmony and stability, and continuously promoted institutionalization of all work. The Chinese people are comprehensively implementing the rule of law as a fundamental principle, and speeding up the building of a socialist country under the rule of law. This is a great, unprecedented social practice involving 1.3 billion Chinese people under the leadership of the CPC. The Chinese nation, with a long history and splendid civilization, is striding ahead on the road of democracy and the rule of law, and opening up a new realm in the development of human political civilization.		前言法治是政治文明发展到一定历史阶段的标志，凝结着人类智慧，为各国人民所向往和追求。中国人民为争取民主、自由、平等，建设法治国家，进行了长期不懈的奋斗，深知法治的意义与价值，倍加珍惜自己的法治建设成果。一国的法治总是由一国的国情和社会制度决定并与其相适应。依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家，是中国人民的主张、理念，也是中国人民的实践。中国共产党领导中国人民成功地开辟了中国特色社会主义道路。在这条道路上，中国适应经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设不断发展的客观要求，坚持党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国有机统一，坚持以人为本，弘扬法治精神，树立民主法治、自由平等、公平正义理念，建立和完善中国特色社会主义法律体系，全面实施依法行政，深化司法体制改革，完善权力制约和监督机制，保障公民的合法权益，维护社会和谐稳定，不断推进各项工作法治化。中国人民正在全面落实依法治国基本方略，加快建设社会主义法治国家。这是一场由中国共产党领导的、13亿中国人民共同参与的、史无前例的伟大社会实践。有着悠久历史和灿烂文明的中华民族，正在民主与法治的道路上阔步前进，努力开创人类政治文明发展的新境界。
I. Historical Course of Building a Socialist Country under the Rule of Law China has a 5,000-year history of civilization. And the Chinese legal system goes back to ancient times. As early as in the 21st century BC, consuetudinary law appeared in China's slave society. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221 BC), written law was promulgated in China, and a systematic written code of laws appeared. In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), China had a fairly complete code of feudal laws, which was passed on and developed in the following feudal dynasties. The Chinese system of law emerged as a unique one in the world. Ancient China made significant contributions to the legal civilization of mankind. After the Opium War broke out in 1840, China was reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. To obliterate the sufferings of the country and rejuvenate the Chinese nation, people with lofty ideals tried to transplant to China modes of the rule of law from modern Western countries, but failed for various historical reasons. Under the leadership of the CPC, the Chinese people, after revolution, construction, reform and development, gradually took the road of building a socialist country under the rule of law. The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 ushered in a new era for China's promotion of the rule of law. The period from 1949 to the mid-1950s was the period when China's socialist legal system was first set up. In this period, China promulgated the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, in the character of an interim constitution, and some other laws and decrees, which played an important role in consolidating the new-born political power, maintaining social order and reviving the national economy. In 1954, at the First Session of the First National People's Congress (NPC), the Constitution of the People's Republic of China was promulgated. The Constitution and other laws enacted later defined China's political and economic systems, citizen's rights and freedom, set the standards for the organizational structure, functions and powers of state organs, and established the basic principles for China's legal system, thus initially laying the foundation for the rule of law in China. From the late 1950s, and especially during the chaotic period of the "cultural revolution" (1966-1976), China's socialist legal system was severely damaged. At the end of the 1970s, the CPC, after summarizing historical experiences, and especially learning painful lessons from the "cultural revolution," made an important decision to shift the focus of national work to socialist modernization, and adopted the policies of reform and opening-up. It also made clear the importance of the principle of governing the country by law. To guarantee democracy for the people, it is necessary to strengthen the socialist legal system, institutionalize democracy and make laws to ensure democracy. The goal was to make the system and laws stable, consistent and authoritative - not changing with changes of state leaders or state leaders' opinions or attention - and achieve the goal of having laws to go by, laws that must be observed and strictly enforced, and lawbreakers prosecuted. This was set up as the basic idea for the rule of law in the new era of reform and opening-up. Under the guidance of the basic principle of developing socialist democracy and improving the socialist legal system, China promulgated the present Constitution and basic laws, such as the Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure Law, Civil Procedure Law, General Principles of the Civil Law and Administrative Procedure Law, ushering in a new development stage of the rule of law. In the 1990s, China started to promote the development of a socialist market economy in an all-round way, further laying the economic foundation and putting forward higher demands for the rule of law. In 1997, the 15th CPC National Congress decided to make "the rule of law" a basic strategy and "building a socialist country under the rule of law" an important goal for socialist modernization, and put forward the significant task of building a socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics. In 1999, "the People's Republic of China exercises the rule of law, building a socialist country governed according to law" was added to the Constitution, ushering in a new chapter in China's efforts to promote the rule of law. Entering the 21st century, China is continuing this undertaking. In 2002, the 16th CPC National Congress decided to take further improvement of the socialist democracy and socialist legal system, comprehensive implementation of the rule of law as important goals for building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. In 2004, "the state respects and guarantees human rights" was included in the Constitution. In 2007, the 17th CPC National Congress expressly called for comprehensively implementing the fundamental principle of rule of the country by law and speeding up the building of a socialist country under the rule of law, and made arrangements for strengthening the rule of law in an all-round way. Over almost six decades since its founding, especially during 30 years since the introduction of the reform and opening-up policies, China has made tremendous achievements in promoting the rule of law in its great task of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. - The rule of law has been established as a fundamental principle. It is a fundamental state principle as well as the common understanding of all sectors of society to govern the country according to law and build a socialist country under the rule of law. Moreover, the socialist idea of the rule of law has been gradually established, with the rule of law at the core, law enforcement for the people as an essential requirement, fairness and justice as a value to be pursued, serving the overall interests as an important mission, and with the leadership of the CPC as a fundamental guarantee. The awareness of law and the rule of law has been generally strengthened in all sectors of society, and a social atmosphere of consciously learning, observing and employing law is coming into being. - The CPC has markedly improved its governance capability. The Party has constantly enhanced its consciousness and firmness in governing the country in a scientific and democratic way, and by law. It has led the people in making the Constitution and laws. Meanwhile, it has carried out activities within the scope prescribed by the Constitution and the law, with the Constitution as the fundamental criterion; it upholds the Constitution and persists in the rule of law, and takes the lead in safeguarding the authority of the Constitution and the law; and it has mobilized and organized the people to the maximum extent to manage state and social affairs, the economy and cultural undertakings. By leading the people in making and abiding by laws and guaranteeing law enforcement, the Party has continuously consolidated its ruling position. - A Constitution-centered socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics has basically taken shape. On the basis of the present Constitution, the state has enacted and improved a large number of laws, administrative regulations, local regulations, autonomous regulations, and separate regulations, making the legal system more complete and providing the state with laws to go by in economic, political and cultural sectors, as well as in social life. Legislation has become more scientific and democratic, and its quality has been improved. Laws now play an increasingly greater role in promoting economic and social development, ensuring social fairness and justice, and guaranteeing the people's rights and the proper exercise of the state power. - Human rights are under reliable legal protection. While improving the people's rights to subsistence and development through economic and social development, the state attaches great importance to protecting citizens' basic rights and freedom in accordance with the Constitution and the law. It protects in accordance with the law the right of all members of society to equal participation and development. With the continuous improvement of laws, regulations, the judicial system and the mechanism for safeguarding rights and interests, human rights have been better guaranteed in legislation, law enforcement, the judiciary and other aspects. The undertaking to protect human rights has been developing in a sound way, and citizens' political, economic, social and cultural rights are now fully respected and guaranteed in all aspects. - The environment for the rule of law, which promotes economic development and social harmony, has been constantly improved. In response to the demands of building a socialist market economy, the state has been strengthening economic legislation and improving macro-control. It prohibits any organization or individual from disrupting the economic and social order in accordance with the law. China has enacted and improved a series of laws and systems promoting economic development, safeguarding market order and achieving social fairness and justice, established an initial law regime for the socialist market economy. The social security system has been continuously improved, with social insurance, social relief and social welfare as the bases, with basic endowment insurance, basic medical insurance and the subsistence allowance system as focuses and supplemented by charities and commercial insurance. - Administration by law and fair administration of justice have been constantly improved. By establishing and improving the organizational and working mechanisms for administrative law enforcement and the judiciary, China guarantees that the administrative and judicial organs exercise their power and perform their duties in accordance with their legitimate authorization and legal procedures. Administrative legislation and institutional improvement have been further strengthened, the system of keeping the public informed of matters being handled is being constantly improved, and government administration based on the rule of law is being furthered. Public security organs fulfill their duties in accordance with the law, safeguarding state security and public order, and guaranteeing that people can live and work in peace and contentment. Courts and procuratorates exercise their powers independently in accordance with the law, make judgments based on facts and with the law as the sole benchmark, and insist on the principle that all citizens are equal before the law, thereby safeguarding and enforcing judicial justice and authoritativeness. - Restraint of and supervision over the use of power have been strengthened. A power structure and a power operating mechanism featuring decision-making authority, enforcement power and supervision right restraining and coordinating each other have been set up and improved continuously; fairly complete supervision systems and rules have been established; and the composite force and effectiveness of supervision have been constantly strengthened. The people's congresses at all levels and their standing committees exercise supervision over the governments, people's courts and people's procuratorates of the same level. The people's political consultative conferences at different levels give full scope to their role of democratic supervision, and such supervision has been gradually institutionalized and standardized. The general public and news media have more and more ways and means to supervise government and judicial work. The constantly improved systems of inquiry, accountability, economic accountability audit, resignation and recall guarantee that the supervision over government functionaries is powerful and effective.		一、建设社会主义法治国家的历史进程中国是一个具有五千年文明史的古国，中华法系源远流长。早在公元前21世纪，中国就已经产生了奴隶制的习惯法。春秋战国时期（公元前770年－公元前221年），中国开始制定成文法，出现了自成体系的成文法典。唐朝（618年－907年）时，中国形成了较为完备的封建法典，并为以后历代封建王朝所传承和发展。中华法系成为世界独树一帜的法系，古老的中国为人类法制文明作出了重要贡献。 1840年鸦片战争后，中国逐渐沦为半殖民地半封建的社会。为了改变国家和民族的苦难命运，一些仁人志士试图将近代西方国家的法治模式移植到中国，以实现变法图强的梦想。但由于各种历史原因，他们的努力最终归于失败。在中国共产党的领导下，中国人民经过革命、建设、改革和发展，逐步走上了建设社会主义法治国家的道路。 1949年中华人民共和国的建立，开启了中国法治建设的新纪元。从1949年到20世纪50年代中期，是中国社会主义法制的初创时期。这一时期中国制定了具有临时宪法性质的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》和其他一系列法律、法令，对巩固新生的共和国政权，维护社会秩序和恢复国民经济，起到了重要作用。1954年第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议制定的《中华人民共和国宪法》，以及随后制定的有关法律，规定了国家的政治制度、经济制度和公民的权利与自由，规范了国家机关的组织和职权，确立了国家法制的基本原则，初步奠定了中国法治建设的基础。20世纪50年代后期以后，特别是“文化大革命”十年（1966年－1976年）动乱，中国社会主义法制遭到严重破坏。 20世纪70年代末，中国共产党总结历史经验，特别是汲取“文化大革命”的惨痛教训，作出把国家工作中心转移到社会主义现代化建设上来的重大决策，实行改革开放政策，并明确了一定要靠法制治理国家的原则。为了保障人民民主，必须加强社会主义法制，使民主制度化、法律化，使这种制度和法律具有稳定性、连续性和权威性，使之不因领导人的改变而改变，不因领导人的看法和注意力的改变而改变，做到有法可依，有法必依，执法必严，违法必究，成为改革开放新时期法治建设的基本理念。在发展社会主义民主、健全社会主义法制的基本方针指引下，现行宪法以及《刑法》、《刑事诉讼法》、《民事诉讼法》、《民法通则》、《行政诉讼法》等一批基本法律出台，中国的法治建设进入了全新发展阶段。 20世纪90年代，中国开始全面推进社会主义市场经济建设，由此进一步奠定了法治建设的经济基础，也对法治建设提出了更高的要求。1997年召开的中国共产党第十五次全国代表大会，将“依法治国”确立为治国基本方略，将“建设社会主义法治国家”确定为社会主义现代化的重要目标，并提出了建设中国特色社会主义法律体系的重大任务。1999年，将“中华人民共和国实行依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家”载入宪法。中国的法治建设揭开了新篇章。进入21世纪，中国的法治建设继续向前推进。2002年召开的中国共产党第十六次全国代表大会，将社会主义民主更加完善，社会主义法制更加完备，依法治国基本方略得到全面落实，作为全面建设小康社会的重要目标。2004年，将“国家尊重和保障人权”载入宪法。2007年召开的中国共产党第十七次全国代表大会，明确提出全面落实依法治国基本方略，加快建设社会主义法治国家，并对加强社会主义法治建设作出了全面部署。中华人民共和国成立近60年来，特别是改革开放30年来，在建设中国特色社会主义的伟大实践中，中国的法治建设取得了巨大成就。 ━━确立了依法治国基本方略。实行依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家，成为国家基本方略和全社会共识。以依法治国为核心内容、以执法为民为本质要求、以公平正义为价值追求、以服务大局为重要使命、以中国共产党的领导为根本保证的社会主义法治理念逐步确立。全社会法律意识和法治观念普遍增强，自觉学法守法用法的社会氛围正在形成。 ━━中国共产党依法执政能力显著增强。中国共产党不断增强科学执政、民主执政、依法执政的自觉性和坚定性。中国共产党领导人民制定宪法和法律，同时以宪法为根本的活动准则，在宪法和法律的范围内活动，坚持宪法和法律至上，带头维护宪法和法律的权威，最广泛地动员和组织人民依法管理国家事务和社会事务、管理经济和文化事业。通过领导立法、带头守法、保证执法，中国共产党执政地位不断巩固。 ━━以宪法为核心的中国特色社会主义法律体系基本形成。在现行宪法基础上，制定并完善了一大批法律、行政法规、地方性法规、自治条例和单行条例，法律体系日趋完备，国家经济、政治、文化和社会生活的各个方面基本实现了有法可依。立法的科学化、民主化水平和立法质量不断提高，法律在促进经济社会发展、维护社会公平正义、保障人民各项权利、确保国家权力正确行使等方面的作用不断增强。 ━━人权得到可靠的法制保障。在通过经济社会发展改善人民的生存权和发展权的同时，国家高度重视通过宪法和法律保障公民的基本权利和自由。依法保证全体社会成员平等参与、平等发展的权利。随着法律规定、司法体制、维护权益机制的不断完善，人权在立法、执法、司法等各个环节得到了更加充分的保障，人权事业全面发展，公民的政治、经济、社会、文化权利得到切实尊重和全面保障。 ━━促进经济发展与社会和谐的法治环境不断改善。按照建立社会主义市场经济的要求，加强经济立法，完善宏观调控，依法禁止任何组织或个人扰乱社会经济秩序。中国建立健全了一系列促进经济发展、维护市场秩序、实现社会公平正义的法律和制度，初步建立了社会主义市场经济的法律制度，以社会保险、社会救助、社会福利为基础，以基本养老、基本医疗、最低生活保障制度为重点，以慈善事业、商业保险为补充的社会保障体系不断完善。 ━━依法行政和公正司法水平不断提高。通过建立健全行政执法和司法的组织法制和工作机制，保证了行政和司法机关按照法定权限和程序行使权力、履行职责。行政立法和制度建设进一步加强，各类公开办事制度不断完善，法治政府建设不断推进。公安机关依法履行职责，维护国家安全和社会治安秩序，保障人民安居乐业。审判机关和检察机关依法独立行使审判权、检察权，坚持以事实为依据、以法律为准绳，坚持公民在法律面前一律平等，维护和实现司法公正和权威。 ━━对权力的制约和监督得到加强。不断建立健全决策权、执行权、监督权既相互制约又相互协调的权力结构和运行机制，已建立起比较完善的监督体系和监督制度，监督合力和实效不断增强。各级人民代表大会及其常委会依法对本级人民政府和人民法院、人民检察院进行监督。人民政协充分发挥民主监督作用，监督行为逐步制度化、规范化。公众和新闻舆论对政府及司法工作的监督渠道不断拓宽。质询、问责、经济责任审计、引咎辞职、罢免等制度的日益健全，保证了对国家公务人员的监督有力有效。
II. Legislation and Legal System with Chinese Characteristics The People's Republic of China is a united, multi-ethnic and unitary socialist country. To guarantee the uniformity of the legal system of the state and reflect the common will and overall interests of the people, China exercises uniform yet multi-tiered legislation. The Constitution prescribes that the NPC and its Standing Committee exercise the legislative power of the state. The NPC enacts and amends basic laws, such as the criminal law and civil law as well as organic laws on state organs and other matters. The Standing Committee of the NPC enacts and amends laws other than those that should be enacted by the NPC, and it can partially supplement and amend, when the NPC is not in session, laws enacted by the NPC, provided that the basic principles of these laws are not contravened. In accordance with the Legislation Law of the People's Republic of China, laws on the following affairs must be made exclusively by the NPC and its Standing Committee: affairs involving state sovereignty, the formation, organization as well as the functions and powers of state organs, the system of regional ethnic autonomy, the system of special administrative regions, the system of self-government of people at the grassroots level, criminal offences and their punishment, deprivation of citizens' political rights, mandatory measures and penalties involving restriction of the freedom of the person, expropriation of non-state-owned property, basic civil system, basic economic system and basic systems of finance, taxation, customs, banking and foreign trade, and systems of litigation and arbitration. With a vast land, China faces complicated conditions and imbalanced development among different regions. To guarantee the uniformity of the state's legal system and yet adapt to different conditions in different regions, the Constitution and Legislation Law both prescribe that, in addition to the NPC and its Standing Committee, the State Council may enact administrative regulations in accordance with the Constitution and the law; the people's congresses or their standing committees of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government may enact local regulations, provided that such regulations do not contradict the Constitution, the laws and administrative regulations, and approve local regulations formulated by people's congresses or their standing committees of the larger cities; the people's congresses of the ethnic autonomous areas have the power to enact autonomous regulations and separate regulations on the basis of the political, economic and cultural conditions of the local ethnic group(s). Moreover, the ministries and commissions of the State Council and the other organs endowed with administrative functions directly under the State Council may, in accordance with the laws and administrative regulations, enact rules within the limits of their power; and the people's governments of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government and the larger cities may, in accordance with laws, administrative regulations and local regulations of their respective province, autonomous region or municipality, enact rules. To conform to the fundamental interests of the public and the overall interests of the state, and at the same time take into consideration all types of specific interests and guarantee scientific and democratic legislation, the Chinese legal system prescribes the legislative procedures of the NPC and its Standing Committee, procedures for the State Council in making administrative regulations, and procedures for local people's congresses and their standing committees at various levels in enacting local regulations. The Standing Committee of the NPC follows the "system of three deliberations" in making laws, which means that a legal bill should be deliberated at three meetings of the Standing Committee of the NPC before it is voted on; and in the case of an important or controversial legal bill, it may undergo more than three deliberations. For instance, the bill of the Property Rights Law went through seven rounds of deliberation at the meetings of the Standing Committee of the NPC before being submitted to the Fifth Session of the Tenth NPC for discussion and adoption. A legal bill submitted to the NPC should be repeatedly deliberated at the plenary meetings, delegation sessions and group discussions of the Congress; and a legal bill submitted to the Standing Committee of the NPC should go through deliberations at the plenary sessions and group discussions of the Standing Committee. Before being promulgated, each law must go through repeated deliberations until a consensus is reached, and then be submitted to the NPC or its Standing Committee for final voting at a plenary meeting. This process, involving many rounds of deliberation, is precisely aimed at giving full expression to all kinds of interests through consultation, and adjusting and balancing relations between different interests. This democratic process, focusing on full consultation before a bill is submitted for final voting, displays a distinctive feature of the system of the NPC of China. In the legislative process, we uphold democracy, pool the people's wisdom and reflect the people's will. To propose legal bills and bills concerning administrative regulations and local regulations, the legislation authorities listen to opinions from all sectors of society through various ways, such as holding forums, feasibility study meetings, hearings, so as to enhance transparency and public participation. Bills of laws, regulations and rules concerning vital public interests or dictating the obligations of citizens are published in full in the news media to ask for comments from the people. After being adopted, the laws and regulations are published in a timely way in gazettes of the people's congresses and governments at all levels, government websites and the mass media. In recent years, the Standing Committee of the NPC and the State Council have sought advice from all sectors of society regarding draft laws and administrative regulations, including the Property Rights Law, Law on Labor Contracts, Law on the Promotion of Employment and Regulations on the Administration of Properties. The Standing Committee of the NPC has held feasibility study meetings and hearings regarding revisions of the Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics, Law on Individual Income Tax, and others. To guarantee the uniformity of the state's legal system and coordination of various laws and regulations, the Chinese legal system prescribes the validity of laws or regulations at different levels: The Constitution has the supreme legal authority, and no laws, administrative regulations, local regulations, autonomous regulations, separate regulations, or rules may contravene the Constitution. The authority of laws is higher than that of administrative regulations, local regulations and rules. The authority of administrative regulations is higher than that of local regulations and rules; and the authority of local regulations is higher than that of the rules of local governments at and below the corresponding level. The legal system also prescribes a system of record and examination for regulations and rules: Administrative regulations shall be filed to the Standing Committee of the NPC for the record; local regulations shall be filed to the Standing Committee of the NPC and the State Council for the record; and the rules of a department and of a local government shall be filed to the State Council for the record. The NPC has the power to alter or annul any inappropriate laws enacted by its Standing Committee; the Standing Committee of the NPC has the power to annul any administrative regulations that contradict the Constitution and the law, and to annul any local regulations that contradict the Constitution, laws or administrative regulations; and the State Council has the power to alter or annul any inappropriate rules of the government departments and of local governments. The NPC gives the Hong Kong and Macao special administrative regions (SAR) the power of legislation in accordance with their respective Basic Law, and no laws of the SAR may contradict the Basic Law of the SAR. The legal system of China also prescribes the procedure of examination of administrative regulations, local regulations, autonomous regulations and separate regulations on whether they contradict the Constitution or the law: When the State Council, the Central Military Commission, the Supreme People's Court, the Supreme People's Procuratorate and the standing committees of the people's congresses of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government consider that any administrative regulation, local regulation, autonomous regulation or separate regulation contradicts the Constitution or any law, they may submit to the Standing Committee of the NPC written requests for examination; and when other state organs, public organizations, enterprises and public institutions or citizens consider that any administrative regulation, local regulation, autonomous regulation or separate regulation contradicts the Constitution or any law, they may also submit to the Standing Committee of the NPC written requests for examination. The precondition for building a socialist country under the rule of law is that there must be laws to go by. Unremitting efforts over many years have seen the establishment of a socialist legal framework with Chinese characteristics and with the Constitution at the core. The modern Chinese legal system, with complete branches, distinctive levels, a balanced structure and scientific style, mainly consists of seven branches of legislation and three levels. The seven branches of legislation are: the Constitution and the Constitution-related laws; civil and commercial laws; administrative laws; economic laws; laws on society; criminal law; and litigation and non-litigation procedural laws. The three levels are: laws; administrative regulations; and local regulations, autonomous regulations and separate regulations. The NPC and its Standing Committee have enacted 229 laws currently in effect, covering all the above seven branches; and have made most of each branch, including basic laws as the framework of the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics and laws urgently demanded by reform, development and stability. As supplements, the State Council has enacted nearly 600 administrative regulations currently in effect; local people's congresses and their standing committees at various levels have enacted over 7,000 local regulations currently in effect; and the people's congresses of the ethnic autonomous areas have enacted over 600 autonomous regulations and separate regulations currently in effect. The departments under the State Council, the people's governments of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, and the larger cities have also enacted numerous rules. In the socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics, the Constitution is at the core and dominant. The present Constitution, on the basis of the 1954 Constitution, was adopted at the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC in 1982 after public discussion. The Constitution, as the fundamental law of the state, has supreme legal authority. The people of all ethnic groups, all state organs, the armed forces, all political parties and public organizations and all enterprises and public institutions in the country must take the Constitution as the basic standard of conduct, and they have the duty to uphold the dignity of the Constitution and ensure its implementation. To implement the basic principle of governing the country by law, it is first of all necessary to implement the Constitution in an all-round and thorough way. The present Constitution of China, summarizing historical experiences and taking lessons from the "cultural revolution," has not only prescribed the fundamental rights and duties of citizens, but also included specific provisions guaranteeing the inviolability of the personal dignity and freedom of the person of Chinese citizens, and that Chinese citizens enjoy freedom of religious belief. The Constitution, based on the principle of democratic centralism for the state organs and experience in building political power since the founding of New China, has comprehensive stipulations on the state organs: The state strengthens the system of the People's Congress as the basic political system of China; part of the NPC's functions and powers are delegated to and exercised by its Standing Committee; the state has the president and vice-president; the state establishes the Central Military Commission to lead all the armed forces of China; under the uniform leadership of the Central Authorities, the state strengthens the building of local organs of state power, and people's congresses at and above the county level have their standing committees; and the president and vice-president of the state, chairman and vice-chairmen of the Standing Committee of the NPC, premier, vice-premiers and state councilors, president of the Supreme People's Court and procurator-general of the Supreme People's Procuratorate shall serve no more than two consecutive terms each. The Constitution also stipulates that regional autonomy is practiced in areas where people of ethnic minorities live in compact communities, where organs of self-government are established to exercise the power of autonomy; grassroots autonomy is practiced in both urban and rural areas in the form of residents committees and villagers committees, respectively; and the state may establish special administrative regions when necessary, and the systems to be instituted in the special administrative regions shall be prescribed by law enacted by the NPC in the light of the specific conditions there. After the present Constitution was adopted in 1982, the NPC, to adapt to the changes in Chinese society, made amendments as many as four times to its content and some articles. The Amendments to the Constitution made in 1988 prescribes: The state permits the private sector of the economy to exist and develop within the limits prescribed by law; and the right to the use of land may be transferred in accordance with the law. The Amendments to the Constitution made in 1993 prescribes: The state practices socialist market economy; and the system of multi-party cooperation and the political consultation under the leadership of the Communist Party of China shall exist and develop for a long time to come. The Amendments to the Constitution made in 1999 prescribes: The People's Republic of China exercises the rule of law, building a socialist country governed according to law; and in the primary stage of socialism, the state upholds the basic economic system with the dominance of the public ownership and the simultaneous development of an economy of diverse forms of ownership, and upholds the distribution system with the dominance of distribution according to work and the coexistence of diverse modes of distribution. The Amendments to the Constitution made in 2004 prescribes: The state encourages, supports and guides the development of the non-public sectors of the economy, and exercises supervision and control over the non-public sectors in accordance with the law; the lawful private property of citizens may not be encroached upon, and the state protects by law the right of citizens to own and inherit private property; and the state respects and protects human rights. The legal system of China accords with the principle of universality for the development of human political civilization, and conforms to the basic conditions of the primary stage of socialism in China. It is in line with the basic tasks of socialism, and has distinctive Chinese characteristics. The essence of this legal system is to put people first, reflects the common will of the people and guarantees the fundamental interests of the people. It is in line with the economic development and social progress of China, and provides legal safeguards for scientific, harmonious and peaceful development of the country. China's socialist legal system with Chinese characteristics is open and developing. As China is at a stage of social transformation, its legal system is phased and forward-looking. It will continue to promulgate new laws and revise present ones, so as to develop and improve the legal system.		二、中国特色的立法体制和法律体系中华人民共和国是统一的、多民族的、单一制的社会主义国家。为维护国家法制统一，体现全体人民的共同意志和整体利益，中国实行统一而又分层次的立法体制。中国《宪法》规定，国家立法权由全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会行使。全国人民代表大会制定和修改刑事法律、民事法律、国家机构组织法和其他基本法律。全国人民代表大会常务委员会制定和修改除应当由全国人民代表大会制定的法律以外的其他法律，并可以对全国人民代表大会制定的法律进行部分补充和修改，但是补充和修改不得同该法律的基本原则相抵触。中国《立法法》规定，涉及国家主权的事项，国家机构的产生、组织和职权，民族区域自治制度、特别行政区制度、基层群众自治制度，犯罪和刑罚，对公民政治权利的剥夺、限制人身自由的强制措施和处罚，对非国有财产的征收，民事基本制度，基本经济制度，财政、税收、海关、金融和外贸的基本制度，以及诉讼和仲裁制度等事项，属于全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会的专属立法权。中国幅员辽阔，情况复杂，各地发展不平衡。为维护国家法制统一，同时又适应各地不同情况，《宪法》和《立法法》规定，除全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会制定法律外，国务院根据宪法和法律，可以制定行政法规；省、自治区、直辖市的人民代表大会及其常务委员会在不同宪法和法律、行政法规相抵触的前提下，可以制定地方性法规，批准较大的市的人民代表大会及其常务委员会制定的地方性法规；民族自治地方的人民代表大会有权依照当地民族的政治、经济和文化的特点，制定自治条例和单行条例。此外，国务院各部门和具有行政管理职能的直属机构根据法律和行政法规，可以在其职权范围内制定部门规章；省、自治区、直辖市和较大的市的人民政府，根据法律、行政法规和本省、自治区、直辖市的地方性法规，可以依法制定规章。为使法律符合公众的根本利益和国家的整体利益，同时又兼顾各方面的具体利益，保证立法的科学性和民主性，中国法律规定了全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会的立法程序，以及国务院制定行政法规、地方人民代表大会及其常务委员会制定地方性法规的程序。全国人民代表大会常务委员会审议法律案一般实行“三审制”，即法律案一般应当经过三次常务委员会会议审议后再交付表决，对重大的、意见分歧较大的法律草案，审议的次数可以超过三次，如物权法草案经过全国人民代表大会常务委员会七次审议后，才提请第十届全国人民代表大会第五次会议审议通过。提请全国人民代表大会审议的法律草案，要经过代表大会会议、代表团全体会议、代表小组会议的反复审议；提请全国人民代表大会常务委员会审议的法律草案，要经过常务委员会全体会议、分组会议的反复审议。每部法律的出台，都要经过反复审议，充分讨论，基本达成一致意见后，再提请全国人民代表大会或者全国人民代表大会常务委员会的全体会议表决。这种多次审议的过程，就是通过协商以求充分表达各种利益诉求，并力求把各种利益关系调整好、平衡好的过程。经过充分协商再提请表决的程序民主，体现了中国人民代表大会制度的鲜明特点。在立法过程中，坚持发扬民主，集中民智，反映民意。在提出法律草案和行政法规草案、地方性法规草案时，通过召开座谈会、论证会、听证会等多种形式，广泛听取各方面意见，增强立法的透明度和公众参与度。关系公众切身利益或者涉及需要设立普遍的公民义务的法律、法规草案，还要在新闻媒体上全文公布，征求全体人民的意见。法律、法规通过后，及时在各级人大及政府公报、政府网站、公众媒体上公开刊登。近年来，全国人民代表大会常务委员会和国务院分别将物权法、劳动合同法、就业促进法、物业管理条例等多部法律草案和行政法规草案向社会公布，广泛征求各方面意见。全国人民代表大会常务委员会还就修改文物保护法、个人所得税法等，召开论证会和听证会。为保证国家法制统一和法律规范之间的协调，中国法律规定了不同层级法律规范的效力：宪法具有最高的法律效力，一切法律、行政法规、地方性法规、自治条例和单行条例、规章都不得与宪法相抵触；法律的效力高于行政法规、地方性法规、规章；行政法规的效力高于地方性法规、规章；地方性法规的效力高于本级和下级地方政府规章。法律规定了法规和规章的备案审查制度：行政法规报全国人民代表大会常务委员会备案；地方性法规报全国人民代表大会常务委员会和国务院备案；部门规章和地方政府规章报国务院备案。全国人民代表大会有权改变或者撤销全国人民代表大会常务委员会制定的不适当的法律；全国人民代表大会常务委员会有权撤销同宪法和法律相抵触的行政法规，有权撤销同宪法、法律和行政法规相抵触的地方性法规等；国务院有权改变或者撤销不适当的部门规章和地方政府规章。全国人民代表大会授权香港、澳门特别行政区依照特别行政区基本法的规定享有立法权；特别行政区的任何法律，均不得同特别行政区基本法相抵触。中国法律还规定了对行政法规、地方性法规、自治条例和单行条例的合宪性和合法性审查的程序：国务院、中央军事委员会、最高人民法院、最高人民检察院和各省、自治区、直辖市的人民代表大会常务委员会认为行政法规、地方性法规、自治条例和单行条例同宪法或者法律相抵触的，可以向全国人民代表大会常务委员会书面提出进行审查的要求；其他国家机关和社会团体、企业事业组织以及公民也可以向全国人民代表大会常务委员会书面提出进行审查的建议。有法可依是建设社会主义法治国家的前提。经过多年不懈的努力，以宪法为核心的中国特色社会主义法律体系基本形成。当代中国的法律体系，部门齐全、层次分明、结构协调、体例科学，主要由七个法律部门和三个不同层级的法律规范构成。七个法律部门是：宪法及宪法相关法，民法商法，行政法，经济法，社会法，刑法，诉讼与非诉讼程序法。三个不同层级的法律规范是：法律，行政法规，地方性法规、自治条例和单行条例。目前，全国人民代表大会及其常务委员会已经制定了229件现行有效的法律，涵盖了全部七个法律部门；各法律部门中，对形成中国特色社会主义法律体系起支架作用的基本的法律，以及改革、发展、稳定急需的法律，大多已经制定出来。与法律相配套，国务院制定了近600件现行有效的行政法规，地方人民代表大会及其常务委员会制定了7000多件现行有效的地方性法规，民族自治地方的人民代表大会制定了600多件现行有效的自治条例和单行条例。国务院有关部门以及省、自治区、直辖市和较大的市的人民政府还制定了大量规章。在中国特色社会主义法律体系中，宪法居于核心和统帅地位。中国现行宪法是在1954年宪法的基础上，经过全民讨论，于1982年由第五届全国人民代表大会第五次会议通过的。宪法是国家的根本大法，具有最高的法律效力。在中国，各族人民、一切国家机关和武装力量、各政党和各社会团体、各企业事业组织，都必须以宪法为根本的活动准则，并负有维护宪法尊严、保证宪法实施的职责。实行依法治国基本方略，首先要全面贯彻实施宪法。中国现行宪法总结历史经验并汲取“文化大革命”教训，不仅对公民的各项基本权利作出规定，而且对公民的人格尊严不受侵犯、公民的人身自由和宗教信仰自由等，都有具体规定。现行宪法根据国家机构实行民主集中制的原则和中华人民共和国成立以后政权建设的经验，对国家机构作了全面规定，包括：加强作为中国根本政治制度的人民代表大会制度，将全国人民代表大会的一部分职权交由它的常务委员会行使；设立国家主席和副主席；国家设立中央军事委员会，领导全国的武装力量；在中央的统一领导下，加强地方政权建设，县级以上的地方各级人民代表大会设立常务委员会；规定国家主席、副主席，全国人民代表大会常务委员会委员长、副委员长，国务院总理、副总理、国务委员，最高人民法院院长，最高人民检察院检察长等国家领导人连续任职不得超过两届等。现行宪法还规定，各少数民族聚居的地方实行区域自治，设立自治机关，行使自治权；在城市和农村实行基层自治；国家在必要时得设立特别行政区，在特别行政区内实行的制度按照具体情况由全国人民代表大会以法律规定。现行宪法通过后，为与中国社会发生的变革相适应，全国人民代表大会又先后四次对宪法的部分内容和条款作了修改。1988年的宪法修正案规定，国家允许私营经济在法律规定的范围内存在和发展；土地的使用权可以依照法律的规定转让。1993年的宪法修正案规定，国家实行社会主义市场经济；中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度将长期存在和发展。1999年的宪法修正案规定，国家实行依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家；国家在社会主义初级阶段，坚持公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展的基本经济制度，坚持按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的分配制度。2004年的宪法修正案规定，国家鼓励、支持和引导非公有制经济的发展，并对非公有制经济依法实行监督和管理；公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯，国家依照法律规定保护公民的私有财产权和继承权；国家尊重和保障人权等。中国的法律体系，既与人类政治文明发展的普遍性原则相一致，又与中国社会主义初级阶段的基本国情相适应，与社会主义的根本任务相协调，具有鲜明的中国特色。这一法律体系的本质是以人为本，反映人民的共同意志，保障人民的根本利益。这一法律体系与国家经济发展和社会进步相适应，为国家的科学发展、和谐发展、和平发展提供法律保障。中国特色社会主义法律体系是开放的和发展的。中国正处在社会转型期，法律体系具有阶段性和前瞻性特点，今后仍将继续制定新的法律和修改原有的法律，使法律体系不断发展和完善。
III. Legal Systems of Respecting and Safeguarding Human Rights China takes as its constant goal the elimination of poverty, enjoyment of human rights to the full by everyone and building of a prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced and harmonious modern socialist country. China's basic stand on the development of human rights is: placing top priority on people's rights to subsistence and development, making development the principal task, and promoting citizens' political, economic, social and cultural rights to achieve their all-round development. Based on its Constitution, China has formulated and improved a series of legal systems to codify and institutionalize the safeguarding of human rights. - Legal safeguard of the right to life. China attaches great importance to safeguarding its citizens' right to life. The Constitution, Criminal Law and General Principles of the Civil Law all include fundamental stipulations on protecting citizens' right to life. The Production Safety Law, the Law on the Prevention and Treatment of Occupational Diseases, and other laws and regulation slay down provisions for the protection of working people's life and health. In view of the country's situation, China retains the death penalty in the law, but upholds the policy of "killing fewer and with caution" and exercises strict and cautious control over the use of the death penalty to ensure that it is applied only in the most serious cases. The death penalty shall not be imposed on persons who have not reached the age of 18 at the time the crime is committed or on women who are pregnant at the time of adjudication. The Criminal Law also prescribes the system of a two-year probation of execution, which is conducive to rigorously controlling the death penalty and reducing the actual number being executed. - Legal safeguard of the right to personal freedom and dignity. The Constitution rules that freedom of the person of citizens of the People's Republic of China is inviolable. No citizen may be arrested without the approval or decision of a people's procuratorate or a decision of a people's court, and any arrest must be made by a public security organ. Unlawful detention and deprivation or restriction of citizens' freedom of the person by other means is prohibited. The residences of citizens are inviolable, and unlawful search of, or intrusion into, a citizen's residence is prohibited. The freedom and privacy of correspondence of citizens are protected by law, and unlawful censorship of citizens' correspondence is prohibited. The Criminal Procedure Law expressly outlaws extortion of confessions by torture, and prescribes strict legal procedures for compulsory measures and means, including detention, execution of arrests, investigation and gathering of evidence, related to personal freedom and safety. The Criminal Law lays down a special provision on the crime of extorting confessions by torture by judicial functionaries. Both the Legislation Law and Law on Administrative Punishment provide too that no administrative regulation or local regulation may impose any penalties restricting personal freedom. Any compulsory measures or penalties restricting personal freedom shall only be enacted by law. In 2003 the State Council annulled the Measures for Taking in and Sending back Vagrants and Beggars in Cities and, at the same time, enacted the Measures for Assisting Vagrants and Beggars with No Means of Support in Cities. The Constitution stipulates that the personal dignity of citizens is inviolable, and that insult, libel, false accusation or false incrimination directed against citizens by any means is prohibited. The General Principles of the Civil Law protects citizens' right to personal name, honor and portrait. - Legal safeguard of the right to equality. The Constitution establishes the principle that all citizens of the People's Republic of China are equal before the law. Every citizen is entitled to the rights and, at the same time, must perform the duties prescribed by the Constitution and the law. Protection or punishment is applied equally to everyone regardless of personal differences. No organization or individual is privileged to be beyond the Constitution or the law, and all acts in violation of the Constitution or the law must be investigated. The Constitution and the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy prescribe that all ethnic groups in the People's Republic of China are equal, and that the state protects the lawful rights and interests of ethnic minorities, and discrimination against and oppression of any ethnic group are prohibited. All ethnic groups have the freedom to use and develop their own spoken and written languages, as well as the freedom to preserve or reform their own folkways and customs. The Constitution, the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women and other laws stipulate that women enjoy equal rights with men in all spheres of life - political, economic, cultural, social and family. - Legal safeguard of political rights. It is stated in the Constitution that all power in the People's Republic of China belongs to the people. The Legislation Law prescribes that deprivation of any citizen's political rights can only be done in accordance with the law. The right to election is an important political right for citizens. It is stipulated by the Constitution and the law that all citizens of the People's Republic of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnic status, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status or length of residence, except for persons deprived of political rights in accordance with the law. The Electoral Law and the Organic Law of the Local People's Congresses and People's Governments prescribe that a group of ten or more voters or deputies may recommend candidates, who enjoy equal legal status with those nominated by political parties and social organizations. Deputies to the people's congresses at all levels, vice-chairmen of the standing committees of local people's congresses and deputy heads of the local people's governments must all be selected through competitive election. The chairmen of the standing committees of local people's congresses, heads of the local people's governments, presidents of local people's courts and chief procurators of local people's procuratorates must also be selected through competitive election, although a non-competitive election may be conducted if only one candidate is nominated. Citizens' freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration is also guaranteed by the Constitution and the law. The Electoral Law, Law on Assemblies, Processions and Demonstrations, and administrative regulations regarding publication and registration and management of social organizations provide legal guarantees for the political rights and freedom of citizens. The Regulations on Written and Personal Petitions promulgated by the State Council protects citizens' rights to criticism, suggestion, petition, accusation and impeachment through strengthening governments' responsibility for handling people's letters and visits regarding petitions. - Legal safeguard of freedom of religious belief. The Constitution stipulates that citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in or not believe in any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in or do not believe in any religion. The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination. The Regulations on Religious Affairs promulgated by the State Council prescribes that the state, in accordance with the law, protects the lawful rights and interests of religious bodies, venues of religious activities and religious believers, and their normal religious activities. Since the adoption of the reform and opening-up policies in 1978, Chinese citizens' freedom of religious belief has been fully respected and protected. In 1994 the State Council enacted the Provisions on the Administration of Religious Activities of Aliens within the Territory of the People's Republic of China to respect freedom of religious belief of aliens within Chinese territory, protect and administer their religious activities in accordance with the law and safeguard friendly contacts and cultural and academic exchanges of aliens with Chinese religious circles in respect of religion. - Legal safeguard of the rights and interests of the working people. The Labor Law, Law on Labor Contracts, Law on Labor Disputes Mediation and Arbitration, Law on the Promotion of Employment, Regulations on Paid Annual Leave of Employees, Regulations on Labor Security Supervision and other regulations and laws regulate and promote employment, rationally define the rights and obligations of employers and employees, and protect the lawful rights of employees. The Regulations on Work-related Injury Insurance, Regulations on Unemployment Insurance, Provisional Regulations on Collection and Payment of Social Insurance Premiums, Interim Measures on Maternity Insurance for Enterprise Employees and other regulations and rules guarantee necessary material assistance to the working people in regard to old age, unemployment, illness, work-related injury and childbearing. The Regulations on the Employment of the Disabled, Provisions on the Labor Protection of Female Employees, Provisions on the Prohibition of Child Labor and other regulations and rules provide special protection for the physical and psychological health and lawful rights of all underprivileged groups. - Legal safeguard of economic, social, cultural and other rights. The Constitution rules that the lawful private property of citizens is inviolable. The Property Rights Law stipulates that the property rights of the state, collective, individual and any other holder of such rights shall be protected by law, and may not be encroached upon by any entity or individual. The Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Elderly, Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care, Law on the Protection of Minors, Law on the Protection of the Disabled and other laws reinforce the protection of special groups. The Regulations on the Minimum Standard of Living of Urban Residents, Regulations on Rural "Five-Guarantee" Work and other regulations prescribe basic living security for urban poverty-stricken people and farmers without labor ability, sources of income, or any supporter, provider or fosterer. The Regulations on Special Care and Preferential Treatment for Servicepersons, Regulations on the Placement of Demobilized Compulsory Servicepersons, and other regulations lay down the state's special care and preferential treatment system for demobilized, injured or dead servicepersons and their families. Citizens' right to education is protected by the Constitution and the law. The Compulsory Education Law intensifies the state's responsibility for guaranteeing the implementation of compulsory education, brings compulsory education completely under the coverage of national financial guarantee, and ensures the equal right of all school-aged children and other teenagers to compulsory education. The Constitution also prescribes that citizens of the People's Republic of China have freedom to engage in scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural pursuits. China has joined 22 international human rights conventions, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Convention on the Rights of the Child, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and other key international conventions in this respect. The Chinese government earnestly fulfills its obligations, submits implementation reports on its own initiative, and gives full play to the role of international human rights conventions in promoting and protecting human rights of the Chinese people. - Legal safeguard of the rights and interests of the working people. The Labor Law, Law on Labor Contracts, Law on Labor Disputes Mediation and Arbitration, Law on the Promotion of Employment, Regulations on Paid Annual Leave of Employees, Regulations on Labor Security Supervision and other regulations and laws regulate and promote employment, rationally define the rights and obligations of employers and employees, and protect the lawful rights of employees. The Regulations on Work-related Injury Insurance, Regulations on Unemployment Insurance, Provisional Regulations on Collection and Payment of Social Insurance Premiums, Interim Measures on Maternity Insurance for Enterprise Employees and other regulations and rules guarantee necessary material assistance to the working people in regard to old age, unemployment, illness, work-related injury and childbearing. The Regulations on the Employment of the Disabled, Provisions on the Labor Protection of Female Employees, Provisions on the Prohibition of Child Labor and other regulations and rules provide special protection for the physical and psychological health and lawful rights of all underprivileged groups. - Legal safeguard of economic, social, cultural and other rights. The Constitution rules that the lawful private property of citizens is inviolable. The Property Rights Law stipulates that the property rights of the state, collective, individual and any other holder of such rights shall be protected by law, and may not be encroached upon by any entity or individual. The Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Elderly, Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care, Law on the Protection of Minors, Law on the Protection of the Disabled and other laws reinforce the protection of special groups. The Regulations on the Minimum Standard of Living of Urban Residents, Regulations on Rural "Five-Guarantee" Work and other regulations prescribe basic living security for urban poverty-stricken people and farmers without labor ability, sources of income, or any supporter, provider or fosterer. The Regulations on Special Care and Preferential Treatment for Servicepersons, Regulations on the Placement of Demobilized Compulsory Servicepersons, and other regulations lay down the state's special care and preferential treatment system for demobilized, injured or dead servicepersons and their families. Citizens' right to education is protected by the Constitution and the law. The Compulsory Education Law intensifies the state's responsibility for guaranteeing the implementation of compulsory education, brings compulsory education completely under the coverage of national financial guarantee, and ensures the equal right of all school-aged children and other teenagers to compulsory education. The Constitution also prescribes that citizens of the People's Republic of China have freedom to engage in scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural pursuits. China has joined 22 international human rights conventions, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Convention on the Rights of the Child, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and other key international conventions in this respect. The Chinese government earnestly fulfills its obligations, submits implementation reports on its own initiative, and gives full play to the role of international human rights conventions in promoting and protecting human rights of the Chinese people.		三、尊重和保障人权的法律制度中国把消灭贫穷落后，让每个人享有充分的人权，建设富强民主文明和谐的社会主义现代化国家，作为不懈的奋斗目标。中国发展人权事业的基本立场是：坚持生存权、发展权的首要地位，把发展作为第一要务，同时不断发展公民的政治、经济、社会、文化权利，努力实现人的全面发展。以宪法为根本依据，中国制定和完善了一系列保障人权的法律制度，人权保障事业不断法律化、制度化。 --生命权的法律保障。中国重视对公民生命权的保障。《宪法》、《刑法》、《民法通则》等法律对保障公民生命权作了基本规定。《安全生产法》、《职业病防治法》等法律法规，对保护劳动者的生命安全和身体健康作出规定。根据本国情况，中国在法律上保留了死刑，但坚持“少杀、慎杀”的政策，严格控制和慎重适用死刑，确保死刑仅适用于极少数罪行极其严重的犯罪分子。犯罪的时候不满18周岁的人和审判的时候怀孕的妇女，不适用死刑。中国《刑法》还规定了有利于严格控制死刑适用的死刑缓期二年执行的制度，以减少实际执行死刑的人数。 --人身自由、人格尊严的法律保障。《宪法》规定，公民的人身自由不受侵犯。任何公民，非经人民检察院批准或者决定或者人民法院决定，并由公安机关执行，不受逮捕。禁止非法拘禁和以其他方法非法剥夺或者限制公民的人身自由。公民的住宅不受侵犯，禁止非法搜查或者非法侵入公民的住宅。公民的通信自由和通信秘密受法律保护，禁止非法检查公民的通信。《刑事诉讼法》明确禁止刑讯逼供，对于拘留、逮捕、搜查取证等涉及人身自由和安全的强制方法和手段，规定了严格的法律程序。《刑法》对于司法人员的刑讯逼供罪也专门作了规定。《立法法》和《行政处罚法》还规定，行政法规和地方性法规均不得设定限制人身自由的处罚；限制人身自由的强制措施和处罚，只能由法律设定。国务院于2003年颁布《城市生活无着的流浪乞讨人员救助管理办法》，同时废止了《城市流浪乞讨人员收容遣送办法》。《宪法》规定公民的人格尊严不受侵犯，禁止用任何方法对公民进行侮辱、诽谤和诬告陷害。《民法通则》规定了公民的姓名权、名誉权、肖像权等各种人格权。 --平等权的法律保障。中国宪法确立了公民在法律面前一律平等的原则。任何公民都平等地享有宪法和法律规定的权利，同时平等地履行宪法和法律规定的义务；在适用法律时，对于任何人的保护或者惩罚，都是平等的，不因人而异；任何组织或者个人都不得有超越宪法和法律的特权，一切违反宪法和法律的行为都必须予以追究。《宪法》和《民族区域自治法》规定，各民族一律平等，国家保障各少数民族的合法权利和利益，禁止对任何民族的歧视和压迫。各民族都有使用和发展自己的语言文字的自由，都有保持或者改革自己的风俗习惯的自由。《宪法》和《妇女权益保障法》等法律规定，妇女在政治的、经济的、文化的、社会的和家庭的生活等方面享有同男子平等的权利。 --政治权利的法律保障。《宪法》规定，国家的一切权力属于人民。《立法法》规定，只有法律才能设定对公民政治权利的剥夺。选举权是公民重要的政治权利。宪法和法律规定，年满18周岁的中国公民，除依法被剥夺政治权利外，不分民族、种族、性别、职业、家庭出身、宗教信仰、教育程度、财产状况、居住期限，都有选举权和被选举权。根据《选举法》和《地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民政府组织法》的规定，选民或者代表10人以上联名，可以推荐代表候选人，并与政党、社会团体推荐的代表候选人具有同等法律地位；各级人民代表大会代表、地方各级人民代表大会常务委员会副主任和人民政府副职领导人员，一律由差额选举产生。地方各级人民代表大会常务委员会主任、人民政府正职领导人员、法院院长和检察院检察长也由差额选举产生；如果提名的候选人只有一人，也可以等额选举。宪法和法律还保障公民言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由。《选举法》、《集会游行示威法》等法律以及有关出版、社团登记管理方面的行政法规，为公民的政治权利和自由提供了法制保障。国务院颁布的《信访条例》，通过强化政府信访工作责任来依法保障公民的批评、建议、申诉、控告、检举权利。 --宗教信仰自由的法律保障。《宪法》规定，公民有宗教信仰自由，任何国家机关、社会团体和个人不得强制公民信仰宗教或者不信仰宗教，不得歧视信仰宗教的公民和不信仰宗教的公民。国家保护正常的宗教活动。任何人不得利用宗教进行破坏社会秩序、损害公民身体健康、妨碍国家教育制度的活动。宗教团体和宗教事务不受外国势力的支配。国务院颁布的《宗教事务条例》，依法保护宗教团体、宗教活动场所和信教公民的合法权益和正常的宗教活动。改革开放以来，中国公民的宗教信仰自由得到了充分尊重和保障。为了尊重在中国境内的外国人的宗教信仰自由，依法保护和管理境内外国人的宗教活动，依法保护境内外国人在宗教方面同中国宗教界进行的友好往来和文化学术交流活动，1994年国务院还颁布了《境内外国人宗教活动管理规定》。 --劳动者权益的法律保障。《劳动法》、《劳动合同法》、《劳动争议调解仲裁法》、《就业促进法》和《职工带薪年休假条例》、《劳动保障监察条例》等法律法规，规范和促进了就业，合理界定了用人单位和劳动者的权利和义务，维护了劳动者的合法权益。《工伤保险条例》、《失业保险条例》、《社会保险费征缴暂行条例》以及《企业职工生育保险试行办法》等法规、规章，保证了劳动者在养老、失业、患病、工伤和生育等情况下能够享有必要的物质帮助。《残疾人就业条例》、《女职工劳动保护规定》、《禁止使用童工规定》等法规和规章，对不同类型弱势群体的身心健康和合法权益给予特别保护。 --经济、社会、文化和其他权利的法律保障。《宪法》规定，公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯。《物权法》规定，国家、集体、私人的物权和其他权利人的物权受法律保护，任何单位和个人不得侵犯。《老年人权益保障法》、《母婴保健法》、《未成年人保护法》、《残疾人保障法》等法律，加强对特殊群体的保护。《城市居民最低生活保障条例》、《农村五保供养工作条例》等法规，规定对城市贫困人口和农村无劳动能力、无收入来源又无人赡养、抚养、扶养的农民提供基本生活保障。《军人抚恤优待条例》和《退伍义务兵安置条例》等法规，规定了国家对退役和伤亡军人及家属的抚恤优待制度。公民受教育的权利受宪法和法律保护。《义务教育法》强化了国家保障义务教育实施的责任，将义务教育全面纳入财政保障范围，保障所有适龄儿童、少年平等接受义务教育的权利。《宪法》还规定，公民有进行科学研究、文学艺术创作和其他文化活动的自由。中国参加了22项国际人权公约，其中包括《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》、《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》、《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》、《儿童权利公约》、《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》等核心国际人权公约。中国政府认真履行所承担的相关义务，积极提交履约报告，充分发挥国际人权公约在促进和保护本国人权方面的积极作用。
IV. Legal Systems Regulating the Order of the Market Economy During the transition from a planned economy to a market economy since the adoption of the reform and opening-up policies in 1978, China has continuously strengthened its legislation in economic and related fields. A legal system compatible with the socialist market economy has basically taken shape. - Civil law system. China makes the confirmation, alteration, exercise, circulation, termination and protection rules of property ownership the core of its civil law system compatible with the building of a socialist market economy. A series of laws, such as the General Principles of the Civil Law, Contract Law, Security Law and Property Rights Law, have set up and improved the system of creditor's rights and property rights system that covers ownership, usufructuary right and property right for security of realty or chattel, established the principle of freedom of contract and the principle that property rights of the state, collective, individual or any other rights holder are equally protected by law, and formed a new pattern that all economic entities with different types of ownership lawfully coexist, equally compete and mutually enhance each other. ．．．．．．		四、规范市场经济秩序的法律制度改革开放以来，在从计划经济体制向市场经济体制转变过程中，中国不断加强经济立法和相关立法，符合社会主义市场经济要求的法律制度已基本形成。 --民事法律制度。与建立社会主义市场经济体制相适应，中国把财产权的确认、变更、行使、流转、消灭和保护规则作为民事法律制度的核心。《民法通则》、《合同法》、《担保法》和《物权法》等一系列法律，建立健全了债权制度和包括所有权、用益物权、担保物权的物权制度，确立了合同自由原则以及国家、集体、私人的物权和其他权利人的物权受法律平等保护的原则，形成了各种所有制经济合法共存、平等竞争、相互促进新格局。 --市场主体的法律制度。中国市场主体法律制度经历了以所有制为导向向以组织和责任形式为导向的立法的转变，适应了市场经济对市场主体的基本要求。《公司法》、《合伙企业法》、《个人独资企业法》、《商业银行法》和《农民专业合作社法》等法律，确认各类市场主体的合法地位，保障其公平参与市场竞争。《公司法》确立了有限责任公司和股份有限公司等基本制度，完善了公司治理结构，为建立现代企业制度、保障公司投资者和利益相关人的合法权益奠定了制度基础。《企业破产法》建立了规范市场主体退出的破产制度。中国还建立了法律、财务、信息咨询等大批市场服务组织，完善了市场中介组织法律制度。 --市场管理的法律制度。《反垄断法》、《反不正当竞争法》规范了市场竞争行为，促进了垄断行业的改革，加强了政府监管和社会监督，并相应地确立了民事赔偿和行政赔偿并存的法律救济制度。《消费者权益保护法》、《产品质量法》建立了保护消费者利益和保证产品质量的法律制度。《城市房地产管理法》建立了有利于城市房地产的管理，维护房地产市场秩序，保障房地产权利人合法权益的制度。《保险法》、《证券法》、《银行业监督管理法》和《外汇管理条例》等法律法规，确立了以公开、公平、公正为价值取向的行业监督管理制度，以有效防范和化解金融风险。《直销管理条例》、《商业特许经营管理条例》等法规也有效规范了市场行为。．．．．．．
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