National Minorities Policy and Its Practice in China

中国的少数民族政策及其实践

【法宝引证码】

Issuing authority： State Council Information Office
Date issued： 09-01-1999


I. A United Multi-Ethnic Country The People's Republic of China is a united multi-ethnic state founded jointly by the people of all its ethnic groups. So far, there are 56 ethnic groups identified and confirmed by the Central Government, namely, the Han, Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, Uygur, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Bouyei, Korean, Manchu, Dong, Yao, Bai, Tujia, Hani, Kazak, Dai, Li, Lisu, Va, She, Gaoshan, Lahu, Shui, Dongxiang, Naxi, Jingpo, Kirgiz, Tu, Daur, Mulam, Qiang, Blang, Salar, Maonan, Gelo, Xibe, Achang, Pumi, Tajik, Nu, Ozbek, Russian, Ewenki, Deang, Bonan, Yugur, Jing, Tatar, Drung, Oroqen, Hezhen, Moinba, Lhoba and Jino. As the majority of the population belongs to the Han ethnic group, China's other 55 ethnic groups are customarily referred to as the national minorities. According to the fourth national census conducted in 1990, of the country's total population 91.96 percent belong to the Han ethnic group, and 8.04 percent belong to minority ethnic groups1. A sample survey conducted among one percent of the total population in 1995 showed that 108.46 million people belonged to minority ethnic groups, accounting for 8.98 percent of the country's total population of more than 1.2 billion, a 0.94 percentage point increase over the figure in 1990. China's ethnic groups live together over vast areas while some live in individual concentrated communities in small areas. In some cases minority peoples can be found living in concentrated communities in areas inhabited mainly by the Han people, while in other cases the situation is just the other way round. This distribution pattern has taken shape throughout China's long history of development as ethnic groups migrated and mingled. The national minorities, though small in numbers, are scattered over vast areas. Minority peoples live in every province, autonomous region and municipality directly under the Central Government, and in most county-level units two or more ethnic groups live together. Now minority peoples are mainly concentrated in provinces and autonomous regions such as in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Guangxi, Tibet, Yunnan, Guizhou, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Liaoning, Jilin, Hunan, Hubei, Hainan and Taiwan2. China has been a united multi-ethnic country since ancient times. In 221 B.C., the first united, multi-ethnic, centralized statethe QinDynastywas founded in China. Today's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province, where minority peoples are concentrated, were prefectures and counties under the jurisdiction of the united Qin regime. During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), the centralized feudal state became even more powerful by inheriting the Qin system. The Han Dynasty set up a Frontier Command Headquarters in the Western Regions (a general term for today's territory west of Dunhuang, Gansu Province, since the Han Dynasty) and added 17 prefectures governing the people of all ethnic groups there. In this way, a state with a vast territory embracing the ancestors of the various peoples living in Xinjiang today emerged. In the course of the frequent communication between the Han Dynasty and the surrounding minority peoples, the people of the Chinese nation were called the Han by other ethnic groups, and the most populous ethnic group in the world, the Han, emerged. China as a united multi-ethnic country was created by the Qin Dynasty and consolidated and developed by the Han Dynasty. The central governments of all dynasties following the Han developed and consolidated the united multi-ethnic entity. The central governments of the past dynasties were established not only by the Han people but also by minority peoples. In the 13th century, the Mongolians established the united multi-ethnic Great Yuan Empire (1206-1368). The Yuan Dynasty practiced a system of xingsheng (province, or branch secretariat, a paramount administrative agency in a provincial area) across the country and appointed aboriginal officials or tu guan (hereditary posts of local administrators filled by chiefs of ethnic minorities) in the prefectures and subprefectures of the southern regions where minority peoples lived in concentrated communities. It established the Pacification Commissioner's Commandery in charge of military and administrative affairs in Tibet, whereby Tibet has became thenceforth an inalienable part of Chinese territory, as well as the Penghu Police Office for the administration of the Penghu Islands and Taiwan. Ethnically, the Yuan Empire comprised most of modern China's ethnic groups. The rise of the Manchu in the 17th century culminated in the founding of the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The Qing Dynasty set up the Ili Generalship and Xinjiang Province in the Western Regions, appointed resident officials in Tibet and established the historical convention of conferring honorific titles on the two Living Buddhas Dalai and Panchen lamas by the Central Government. In addition, the Qing Dynasty carried out a series of policies, including a system of local administrators in minority areas appointed by the Central Government, in southwestern China. Although there were short-term separations and local divisions in Chinese history, unity has always been the mainstream in the development of Chinese history3. During the long process of unification, economic and cultural exchanges brought the people of all ethnic groups in China closely together, giving shape to a relationship of interdependence, mutual promotion and mutual development among them and contributing to the creation and development of the Chinese civilization. Due to their interdependent political, economic and cultural connections, all ethnic groups in China have shared common destiny and interests in their long historical development, creating a strong force of affinity and cohesion. The unity and cooperation among the various ethnic groups have helped to safeguard China as a united multi-ethnic state. In particular in modern times, when China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and the Chinese nation suffered from imperialist invasion, oppression and humiliation and was reduced to the status of an oppressed nation, in order to safeguard the unity of the state and the dignity of the Chinese nation, all the ethnic groups united and fought unyieldingly together against foreign invaders and ethnic separatists. In the 19th century, the people of all the ethnic groups in Xinjiang together with the Qing troops wiped out Yakoob Beg's reactionary forces and defeated the British and Russian invaders' plot to split China. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Tibetan people and troops dealt a heavy blow on the British invaders at the Mount Lungthur and Gyangze battles. During the eight-year war of resistance against Japanese imperialist aggression (1937-1945), the Chinese people of all ethnic groups shared bitter hatred of the enemy and fought dauntlessly and unflinchingly. It is well known that many anti-Japanese forces with ethnic minorities as the mainstay, such as the Hui People's Detachment and the Inner Mongolia Anti-Japanese Guerrilla Contingent made great contributions to China's victory in the War of Resistance. The people of all ethnic groups fought unswervingly and succeeded in safeguarding national unity against acts aimed at splitting the country, which went counter to the historical trend and the will of the Chinese nation, including plots for the ``independence of Tibet', for the setting up of an ``Eastern Turkestan' in Xinjiang and the carving out of a puppet state of ``Manchoukuo' in Northeast China, hatched or engineered by a few ethnic separatists with the support of imperialist invaders. Before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the central governments of the various periods in China each had a sequence of policies and systems of its own concerning ethnic affairs, but under all of them, whether set up by the Han people or an ethnic minority, there was no equality to speak of among ethnic groups. The founding of the People's Republic of China opened up a new era in which all ethnic groups in China enjoy equality, unity and mutual aid. In the big, united family of ethnic groups in the People's Republic of China, on the basis of equality of all rights, the people of all ethnic groups unite of their own accord for mutual promotion and common development and dedicate to the building of a strong, prosperous, democratic and civilized New China.		一、统一的多民族国家中华人民共和国是全国各族人民共同缔造的统一的多民族国家。迄今为止，通过识别并经中央政府确认的民族有56个，即汉、蒙古、回、藏、维吾尔、苗、彝、壮、布依、朝鲜、满、侗、瑶、白、土家、哈尼、哈萨克、傣、黎、傈僳、佤、畲、高山、拉祜、水、东乡、纳西、景颇、柯尔克孜、土、达斡尔、仫佬、羌、布朗、撒拉、毛南、仡佬、锡伯、阿昌、普米、塔吉克、怒、乌孜别克、俄罗斯、鄂温克、德昂、保安、裕固、京、塔塔尔、独龙、鄂伦春、赫哲、门巴、珞巴、基诺等民族。在中国，由于汉族以外的55个民族相对汉族人口较少，习惯上被称为“少数民族”。 1990年中国第四次人口普查的数据表明，在全国总人口中，汉族人口占91.96%，少数民族人口占8.04%①。1995年全国1%人口抽样调查表明，在中国12亿多人口中，少数民族人口为10846万人，占全国总人口的8.98%，比1990年提高了0.94个百分点。中国各民族分布的特点是：大杂居、小聚居、相互交错居住。汉族地区有少数民族聚居，少数民族地区有汉族居住。这种分布格局是长期历史发展过程中各民族间相互交往、流动而形成的。中国少数民族人口虽少，但分布很广。全国各省、自治区、直辖市都有少数民族居住，绝大部分县级单位都有两个以上的民族居住。目前，中国的少数民族主要分布在内蒙古、新疆、宁夏、广西、西藏、云南、贵州、青海、四川、甘肃、辽宁、吉林、湖南、湖北、海南、台湾等省、自治区②。中国自古以来就是一个统一的多民族国家。公元前221年，中国建立了第一个统一的多民族的中央集权国家——秦朝。今天中国的广西、云南等少数民族较为集中的地方都在秦朝统一政权管辖下，并设有郡县加以统治。汉朝（公元前206年—公元220年）继承秦制，中央集权的封建国家更加强大。汉朝在西域（汉朝以后对今中国甘肃敦煌以西地区的总称）置都护府，增设17郡统辖四周各民族，形成了包括今天新疆各族人民先民在内的疆域宽广的国家。在汉朝与周边的少数民族进行频繁的各种交往活动中，汉朝之名也遂被其他民族用来称呼华夏民族，形成了世界上人数最多的民族——汉族。经过秦朝的开创、汉朝的巩固与发展，中国统一的多民族国家从此奠定。汉朝以后，中国历代中央政权发展和巩固了秦汉“大一统”的多民族国家的格局。各个朝代的中央政权既有汉族建立的，也有少数民族建立的。公元十三世纪，蒙古族建立起统一的多民族的大元(1206—1368年)帝国。元朝在全国实行行省制度，在南方部分少数民族聚居的府、州设置土官（以少数民族首领充任并世袭的地方行政长官），在西藏设立主管军政事务的宣慰使司都元帅府,西藏从此成为中国领土不可分割的一部分，还设立澎湖巡检司管理澎湖列岛和台湾。元朝的民族成分包括现今中国绝大多数民族。公元十七世纪，满族崛起，建立中国历史上最后一个封建王朝——清朝(1644—1911年)。清朝在西域设立伊犁将军并建立新疆行省，在西藏设立驻藏大臣,并确立了由中央政府册封达赖、班禅两大活佛的历史定制，在西南地区实行“改土归流”（少数民族地方行政长官由中央政府委派）等一系列政策。中国历史上虽然出现过短暂的割据局面和局部分裂，但统一始终是中国历史发展的主流③。在长期的大统一过程中，经济、文化交往把中国各民族紧密地联系在一起，从而形成了相互依存、相互促进、共同发展的关系，创造和发展了中华文明。中国各民族相互依存的政治、经济、文化联系，使其在长期的历史发展中有着共同的命运和共同的利益，产生了强固的亲和力、凝聚力。中国各民族团结合作，共同捍卫了统一的多民族国家。特别是近代以来，中国曾沦为半殖民地半封建社会，中华民族遭受帝国主义侵略、压迫和欺凌，陷入被压迫民族的境地，为捍卫国家的统一和中华民族的尊严，各民族团结奋斗，共御外侮，与侵略者和民族分裂主义者进行了不屈不挠的斗争。十九世纪，新疆各族人民协同清军消灭了阿古柏反动势力，挫败了英、俄侵略者企图分裂中国的阴谋。十九世纪末和二十世纪初，西藏军民在隆吐山、江孜两次战役中，重创英国侵略者。在中国人民反抗日本帝国主义侵略的八年抗战（1937—1945年）中，各族人民同仇敌忾，浴血奋战，其中的回民支队、内蒙古抗日游击队等许多以少数民族为主的抗日力量为抗战的胜利所作的贡献为世人熟知。针对极少数民族分裂主义者在帝国主义侵略势力的扶持下，策划和制造“西藏独立”、新疆的“东突厥斯坦”、东北的伪“满洲国”等违背历史潮流和中华民族意志的分裂国家行径，各民族人民进行了坚决的斗争，维护了国家的统一。在中华人民共和国成立前，中国历代政府虽都有一套关于民族事务的政策和制度，但无论是汉族还是少数民族建立的中央政权，民族间无平等可言。1949年中华人民共和国的建立，开辟了中国各民族平等、团结、互助的新时代。在中华人民共和国统一的民族大家庭内，各民族在一切权利完全平等的基础上，自愿地联合和团结起来，相互促进，共同发展，致力于建设富强、民主、文明的新中国。
II. Adherence to Equality and Unity Among Ethnic Groups In China, equality among ethnic groups means that, regardless of their population size, their level of economic and social development, the difference of their folkways, customs and religious beliefs, every ethnic group is a part of the Chinese nation, having equal status, enjoying the same rights and performing the same duties in every aspect of political and social life according to law, and ethnic oppression or discrimination of any form is firmly opposed. Unity among ethnic groups means a relationship of harmony, friendship, mutual assistance and alliance among ethnic groups in social life and mutual contacts. To achieve such unity, the various ethnic groups are required to, on the basis of opposition to ethnic oppression and discrimination, safeguard and promote unity among themselves and within every particular ethnic group and the people of all ethnic groups should, jointly and with one heart and one mind, promote the development and prosperity of the nation, oppose ethnic splits and safeguard the unification of the country. The Chinese government has always maintained that equality among ethnic groups is the precondition and basis for unity among ethnic groups, that the latter cannot be achieved without the former, that the latter is the logical outcome of the former and a guarantee for promoting ethnic equality in its true sense. Equality and unity among ethnic groups as the basic principle and policy for resolving ethnic problems have been clearly defined in the Constitution and relevant laws. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China stipulates: ``All ethnic groups in the People's Republic of China are equal. The state protects the lawful rights and interests of the ethnic minorities and upholds and develops a relationship of equality, unity and mutual assistance among all of China's ethnic groups. Discrimination against and oppression of any ethnic group are prohibited.' Citizens of all ethnic groups in China enjoy all equal rights accorded to citizens by the Constitution and law. For instance, they have the rights to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnic status, race and religious belief; their personal freedom and dignity are inviolable; they enjoy freedom of religious belief; they have the right to receive education; they have the right to use and develop their own spoken and written languages; they enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration; they have the right to engage in scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural pursuits; they have the right to work and rest, and the right to material assistance from the state and society when they are disabled; they have the right to criticize and make suggestions regarding any state organ or functionary; and they have the freedom to preserve or change their own folkways and customs4. The Chinese government has adopted special policies and measures to effectively realize and guarantee the right to equality among all ethnic groups, which is prescribed by the Constitution and law, in social life and government activities. As a result, a favorable social environment has been created for ethnic groups to treat each other on an equal footing and to develop a relationship of unity, harmony, friendship and mutual assistance among them. Protection of the Personal Freedom of Ethnic Minorities Before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the economic and social development of the areas inhabited by ethnic minorities was unbalanced; some areas were in society under the serf system, some under the slave system and some even in the later period of the primitive system. The mass of the minority people in these areas were vassals of big feudal lords, nobles, temples or slave owners; they had no personal freedom and could be sold or bought or given as gifts by their owners at will5. In Tibet the Thirteen-Point Law and Sixteen-Point Law formulated in the 17th century and used for more than 300 years, divided the people strictly into three classes and nine grades: the people of the upper class were big nobles, Grand Living Buddhas and high officials, the people of the intermediate class were ordinary clerical and secular officials, junior officers and stewards of upper class people, and the people of the lower class were serfs and slaves. According to these Laws the value of the life of a top-grade person of the upper class was measured by the weight of his body in gold, while the life of a lowest-grade person of the lower class was as cheap as a straw rope. However, the people of the lower class exceeded 95 percent of the total population of Tibet6. It is obvious that without the reform of the backward social and political system in minority areas the various equal rights of minority peoples stipulated in the Constitution and the law could not be realized. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Chinese government adopted different measures to institute democratic reform successively in the minority areas at the will of the minority of the people in these areas, and completed the reform in the late 1950s. This reform abolished all the privileges of the privileged fewfeudal lords, nobles and tribal chiefsand the old system of exploitation and oppression of man by man. As a result, tens of thousands of the minority people won emancipation and personal freedom and became masters of their homelands and their own destinies. The democratic reform which took place in Tibet in 1959 eradicated the feudal serf system marked by the combination of government and religion and the dictatorship of nobles and monks, thus tens of thousands of serfs and slaves under the old system got their personal freedom and became masters of the new society. All Ethnic Groups Participate in State Affairs Administration on an Equal Footing In China, the minority and Han peoples participate as equals in the management of affairs of the state and local governments at various levels, and the rights of the minority ethnic groups to take part in the management of state affairs are especially guaranteed. Elections to the National People's Congress(NPC)the highest organ of state powerfully reflect respect for the rights of ethnic minorities. In accordance with the provisions of the Electoral Law of the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses of the People's Republic of China, the minority peoples shall have their own deputies to sit in the NPC, and the ethnic groups whose population is less than that prescribed for electing one deputy are permitted to elect one deputy. From the first session of the First NPC, held in 1954, to the present day, the proportions of deputies of ethnic minorities among the total number of deputies in every NPC have been higher than the proportions of their populations in the nation's total population in the corresponding periods. Of 2,979 deputies elected in 1998 to the Ninth NPC, 428 deputies were from ethnic minority, accounting for 14.37 percent of the total, which was about five percentage points higher than the proportion of their total population in the nation's total population at that time. In areas where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, each of them may have its own deputy or deputies sit in the local people's congresses. Ethnic minorities living in scattered groups may also elect their own deputies to the local people's congresses and the number of people represented by each of their deputies may be less than the number of people represented by each of the other deputies to such congresses. The state has made great efforts to train ethnic minority cadres and enlist their service. To date, there are well over 2,700,000 minority cadres throughout the country. The ethnic minorities also have a fairly large appropriate number of personnel working in the central and local state organs, administrative organs, judicial organs and procuratorial organs, taking part in the management of national and local affairs. Today, among the vice-chairpersons of the Standing Committee of the NPC, those of ethnic minority origin account for 21 percent; among the vice-chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), those of ethnic minority origin account for 9.6 percent; of the leading members of the State Council, one is of ethnic minority origin; among the leaders of the component departments of the State Council, two ministers are from ethnic minority groups; and the heads of the governments of the 155 ethnic autonomous regions, prefectures and counties (or banners) are all from ethnic minority groups. Identification of Ethnic Minorities Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, it had never been made clear how many ethnic minorities there were in China. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, to implement the policy of equality among ethnic groups in an all-round way the state has organized large-scale investigations since 1953 to identify the ethnic groups. Proceeding from conditions both past and present and in accordance with the principle of combination of scientific identification and the wishes of the given ethnic group, every group which accords with the conditions for an ethnic group is identified as a single ethnic group, regardless of its level of social development and the sizes of its inhabited area and population. By 1954, the Chinese government had identified 38 ethnic groups in all, after careful investigation and study. By 1964, the Chinese government had identified another 15 ethnic groups. With the addition of the Lhoba ethnic group, identified in 1965, and the Jino ethnic group, identified in 1979, there are 55 ethnic minority groups which have been formally recognized and made known to the public. Now, in New China many ethnic minority groups which had not been recognized by the rulers of old China have been recognized as they should, and they all enjoy equal rights with other ethnic groups in China. Opposing Ethnic Discrimination or Oppression of Any Form Under the system of ethnic discrimination and oppression in old China, many ethnic minorities did not have proper names or names given in the spirit of equality. The names of certain minority-inhabited areas even carried the implications of ethnic discrimination or oppression. In 1951 the Central People's Government promulgated the Directive on Dealing with the Appellations, Place Names, Monuments, Tablets and Inscriptions Bearing Contents Discriminating Against or Insulting Ethnic Minorities, and such names, appellations, etc. were resolutely abolished. Some ethnic appellations not implying insults were also changed at the wish of the given ethnic group, for instance, the appellation of the Tong ethnic group was changed to Zhuang. In China any words or acts aimed at inciting hostility and discrimination against any ethnic group and sabotaging equality and unity among peoples are regarded as violating the law. Any ethnic minority subjected to discrimination, oppression or insult, has the right to complain to judicial institutions at any level, which have the duty of handling the complaint. China has joined international conventions such as The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, and Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, and has conscientiously performed the duties prescribed in these conventions and made unremitting efforts together with the international community to realize ethnic equality and oppose racial segregation and ethnic oppression and discrimination in all countries of the world. Upholding and Promoting the Unity of All Ethnic Groups To safeguard equality among ethnic groups and enhance their unity, the Constitution contains provisions on the need to combat big-ethnic group chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and local ethnic chauvinism. The state also educates all citizens in the unity of all ethnic groups. In literary and art works, films and televisions programs, news reports and academic research, China vigorously advocates the equality and unity of ethnic groups, and opposes ethnic oppression and discrimination, and especially big-ethnic group chauvinism. Besides, to prevent and eliminate big-ethnic-group chauvinism and inequality in the ideological field, the relevant departments and organs of the Chinese government have worked out special provisions to strictly prohibit contents damaging ethnic unity in the media, publications, and literary and art works. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government and the relevant departments have held meetings to commend ethnic unity and progress, at which those units and individuals who uphold the equal rights of ethnic groups and promote harmonious coexistence and common progress and prosperity of ethnic groups are praised and encouraged. Following the launching of a nationwide in-depth movement for the unity and progress of ethnic groups, in 1988 the Chinese government held the first national meeting to commend and give awards to units and individuals distinguished in this regard, at which the commendation involved 565 advanced collectives and 601 advanced individuals. At the second national meeting, held in 1994, a total of 1,200 model units and individuals were cited, and the third national meeting is scheduled to be held in Beijing in 1999. The holding of this kind of meetings has gone a long way toward inspiring the advanced, encouraging healthy trends and making ethnic unity become a powerful part of public opinion and a fine moral conduct in society. It has not only pushed forward the cause for unity and progress among ethnic groups, but it has also exerted a far-reaching influence on the maintenance of stability in ethnic minority areas and the nation at large. Respecting and Protecting the Freedom of Religious Belief of Ethnic Minorities China is home to many religions, mainly Buddhism, Taoism, Islam and Christianity. Most people belonging to ethnic minorities in China hold religious beliefs. In the case of certain ethnic groups religions are followed on a mass scale, for instance the Tibetans have Tibetan Buddhism as their traditional religion. In accordance with the Constitution's provisions on freedom of religious belief of citizens, the Chinese government has formulated specific policies to ensure respect for and safeguard freedom of religious belief for ethnic minorities and guarantee all normal religious activities of ethnic minorities citizens. In China, all normal religious activities, such as those of Tibetan Buddhism, which is followed by the Tibetan, Mongolian, Tu, Yugur and Moinba ethnic groups, Islam, followed by the Hui, Uygur, Kazak, Dongxiang, Salar, Bonan, Kirgiz, Tajik, Ozbek and Tatar ethnic groups, and Christianity, followed by some people of the Miao and Yao ethnic groups, are all protected by law. To date, there are more than 30,000 mosques in China, of which 23,000 are in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. In Tibet there are over 1,700 places for Tibetan-Buddhism activities. Use and Development of Spoken and Written Languages of Ethnic Minorities All ethnic groups in China have the freedom and right to use and develop their own spoken and written languages. In the 1950s, China organized specialists to make investigations of the spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities, and established special organizations involved in work connected with the spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities as well as institutions to research these languages, to train specialists in these languages, help minority people create, improve or reform their written languages, and promote the use of spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities in every field. Now, all the 55 national minorities, except the Hui and Manchu, who use the Chinese language, have their own languages: among them 21 use 27 languages, and more than ten ethnic goups, including the Zhuang, Bouyei, Miao, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Va, Dong, Jingpo (Zaiva language family) and Tu, use 13 languages which have been created or improved with the help of the government. The spoken and written languages of national minorities are widely used in judicial, administrative and educational fields, as well as in political activities and social life. In the political activities of the state, such as important meetings held by the NPC and the CPPCC, and national and local important activities, documents in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uygur, Kazak, Korean, Yi, Zhuang and other ethnic minorities, and language interpretation to or from these languages are provided. The organs of self-government in ethnic autonomous areas all use one or more languages of their areas when they perform their duties. In the educational field the organs of self-government, in accordance with the educational principles of the state and the law, work out their local educational programs and decide on the languages to be used in teaching in the local schools. In schools with minority students as the main body and other educational institutions the languages of the ethnic groups concerned or languages commonly used in the locality are used in teaching. China publishes about 100 newspapers in 17 minority languages and 73 periodicals in 11 minority languages. The Central People's Broadcasting Station and local broadcasting stations use 16 minority languages, and regional, prefectural and county broadcasting stations or rediffusion stations use more than 20. As many as 3,410 feature films have been produced and 10,430 films dubbed in minority languages. By 1998, 36 publishing houses specializing in publishing for national minorities had published more than 53 million copies of 4,100-odd titles of books in 23 minority languages.		二、坚持民族平等团结在中国，民族平等是指：各民族不论人口多少，经济社会发展程度高低，风俗习惯和宗教信仰异同，都是中华民族的一部分，具有同等的地位，在国家和社会生活的一切方面，依法享有相同的权利，履行相同的义务，反对一切形式的民族压迫和民族歧视。而民族团结是指：各民族在社会生活和交往中的和睦、友好和互助、联合的关系。民族团结要求在反对民族压迫和民族歧视的基础上，维护和促进各民族之间和民族内部的团结，各民族人民齐心协力，共同促进国家的发展繁荣，反对民族分裂，维护国家统一。中国政府历来认为，民族平等是民族团结的前提和基础，没有民族平等，就不会实现民族团结；民族团结则是民族平等的必然结果，是促进各民族真正平等的保障。民族平等和民族团结作为解决民族问题的基本原则和根本政策，在中国的宪法和有关法律中得到明确规定。《中华人民共和国宪法》规定：“中华人民共和国各民族一律平等。国家保障各少数民族的合法权利和利益，维护和发展各民族的平等、团结、互助关系。禁止对任何民族的歧视和压迫”。中国各民族公民广泛地享有宪法和法律赋予公民的各项平等权利。诸如：各民族公民不分民族、种族、宗教信仰，都同样地享有选举权和被选举权；各民族公民的人身自由和人格尊严不受侵犯；各民族公民都有宗教信仰自由的权利；各民族公民都有接受教育的权利；各民族公民都有使用和发展本民族语言文字的权利；各民族公民都有言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由；各民族公民都有从事科学研究、文学艺术创作和其他文化活动的权利；各民族公民都有劳动、休息和丧失劳动能力时从国家和社会获得物质帮助的权利；各民族公民都有对国家机关和国家工作人员提出批评和建议的权利；各民族公民都有保持或改革自己风俗习惯的自由等等④。中国政府采取了特殊的政策和措施，努力使宪法和法律规定的各民族一律平等的权利在社会生活和政府行为中得到有效落实和保障，形成了各民族平等相待、团结和睦、友好互助的良好社会环境。保护少数民族人身自由中华人民共和国成立前，中国少数民族地区经济社会发展很不平衡，有的处于封建农奴制社会，有的处于奴隶制社会，有的还处于原始社会末期。这些地区的少数民族群众大都附属于封建领主、大贵族、寺庙或奴隶主，可以被任意买卖或当作礼物赠送，没有人身自由⑤。在西藏，形成于十七世纪并沿用了300多年的法律——《十三法典》、《十六法典》，将人严格划分为三等九级：“上等人”是大贵族、大活佛和高级官员，“中等人”为一般僧俗官员、下级军官和上等人的管家等，“下等人”是农奴和奴隶。“法典”规定：“上等上级人”的命价按尸量黄金计，“下等下级人”的命价仅为一根草绳，而“下等人”占西藏总人口的95%以上⑥。不改革少数民族地区落后的社会政治制度，宪法和法律规定的少数民族的各项平等权利就无法实现。中华人民共和国成立后，根据大多数少数民族地区人民的意愿，中国政府采取不同方法先后在少数民族地区逐步实行民主改革，并在五十年代末完成。这场改革废除了领主、贵族、头人等特权者的一切特权，消灭了人剥削人、人压迫人的旧制度，使千百万少数民族群众翻身解放，获得人身自由，成为国家和自己命运的主人。1959年在西藏进行的民主改革，彻底废除了长达700多年的政教合一、贵族僧侣专权的封建农奴制度，昔日百万农奴和奴隶获得了人身自由，成了新社会的主人。各民族平等参与国家事务的管理在中国，各少数民族与汉族都以平等的地位参与国家大事和各级地方事务的管理，而且少数民族参与行使管理国家的权利受到特殊保障。在中国的最高权力机关全国人民代表大会的选举中，充分反映了对少数民族权利的尊重。中国各少数民族都依据《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法》的规定，选出代表本民族的全国人民代表大会代表，人口特别少的民族，即使达不到规定的产生一名代表的人数，至少也有一名代表。从1954年第一届全国人民代表大会至今，历届全国人民代表大会中，少数民族代表在全国人民代表大会代表中所占名额的比例，均高于同期在全国人口中所占的比例。1998年选出的第九届全国人民代表大会代表中，少数民族代表共有428人,占代表总数2979人的14.37%，比同期少数民族人口占全国总人口的比例约高出5个百分点。在地方各级人民代表大会中，少数民族聚居的地方，每一聚居的少数民族都有代表参加当地的人民代表大会。散居的少数民族也参加选举代表本民族的当地人民代表大会的代表，而且每一代表所代表的人口数可以少于当地人民代表大会每一代表所代表的人口数。国家大力培养使用少数民族干部，全国现有少数民族干部270多万人。在中央和地方国家权力机关、行政机关、审判机关和检察机关都有相当数量的少数民族人员，参加国家和地方事务的管理。目前，在中国全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长中，少数民族占21%，在全国政协副主席中，少数民族占9.6%；在国务院领导成员中，有一人为少数民族；在国务院的组成部门中，有两位部长是少数民族；155个民族自治地方政府的主席、州长、县长或旗长都由少数民族人员担任。确认少数民族成分在中华人民共和国成立以前，中国究竟有多少少数民族，并不清楚。中华人民共和国成立后，为了全面贯彻实行民族平等政策，从1953年起,国家组织了大规模的民族识别考察工作，辨别民族成分和民族名称。识别考察从中国的历史和现实情况出发，按照科学认定与本民族意愿相结合的原则,只要具有构成单一民族条件的，不管其社会发展水平如何，不论其居住区域大小和人口多少，都认定为一个民族。经过认真的调查研究，到1954年，中国政府确认了38个民族；到1964年，中国政府又确认了15个民族。加上1965年确认的珞巴族、1979年确认的基诺族，全国55个少数民族都被正式确认并公布。新中国的民族识别工作使许多不被旧中国的统治者承认的少数民族获得了应有的承认，并与中国其他民族一样享有平等权利。反对任何形式的民族歧视和压迫旧中国在民族歧视和民族压迫制度下，许多少数民族没有平等的、准确的称谓，有些少数民族地区的地名也带有民族歧视和压迫的含义。中华人民共和国成立以后，中央人民政府采取措施，于1951年发布了《关于处理带有歧视或侮辱少数民族性质的称谓、地名、碑碣、匾联的指示》，废除了带有侮辱性的称谓、地名等。有的少数民族称谓虽然没有侮辱性的含义，也根据少数民族自己的意愿进行了更改，如僮族的“僮”改为“壮”等。在中国，任何煽动民族仇视和歧视，破坏民族平等团结的言行都是违法的。少数民族如遭受歧视、压迫或侮辱，有向司法机关控告的权利，司法机关对此种控告必须负责予以处理。中国加入了《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》、《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》、《防止和惩治灭绝种族罪行公约》等国际公约，并认真履行国际公约的义务，同国际社会一起，为在世界各国实行民族平等，反对种族隔离、民族压迫和民族歧视进行不懈的努力。维护和促进各民族大团结为保障民族平等，加强民族团结，中国宪法规定：要反对大民族主义，主要是大汉族主义，也要反对地方民族主义。同时，国家还在全体公民中广泛开展各民族大团结的宣传和教育。在文艺作品、影视作品、新闻报道、学术研究中都大力倡导民族平等、民族团结，反对民族压迫和民族歧视，特别是反对大民族主义。为防止和杜绝意识形态领域的大民族主义和不平等现象的出现，中国政府有关部门、机构专门就严禁在新闻出版和文艺作品中出现损害民族团结内容等事项作出了规定。自八十年代以来，中国政府及有关部门多次举行民族团结进步表彰活动，对维护各民族平等权利、促进各民族和睦相处和共同进步繁荣的单位和个人给予表彰和奖励。1988年，中国政府在全国广泛深入开展民族团结进步活动的基础上，召开了第一次全国民族团结进步表彰大会，有565个先进集体、601名先进个人受到表彰。1994年，中国政府又召开了第二次全国民族团结进步表彰大会，1200多个模范单位和个人受到表彰。1999年，中国政府还将在北京召开第三次全国民族团结进步表彰大会。通过开展民族团结进步表彰活动，激励先进，弘扬正气，使民族团结成为强大的社会舆论和良好的社会风尚，不仅推动了民族团结进步事业的发展，而且对维护少数民族地区和整个国家的稳定也产生了深远影响。尊重和保护少数民族宗教信仰自由中国是一个有着多种宗教的国家，主要有佛教、道教、伊斯兰教、天主教、基督教等。中国少数民族群众大多有宗教信仰，有的民族群众性地信仰某种宗教，如藏族群众信仰藏传佛教。中国政府根据《中华人民共和国宪法》关于公民有宗教信仰自由的规定，制定了具体政策，尊重和保护少数民族的宗教信仰自由，保障少数民族公民一切正常的宗教活动。在中国，不论是信仰藏传佛教的藏、蒙古、土、裕固、门巴等民族的群众，还是信仰伊斯兰教的回、维吾尔、哈萨克、东乡、撒拉、保安、柯尔克孜、塔吉克、乌孜别克、塔塔尔等民族的群众，以及部分信仰基督教的苗、瑶等民族的群众，他们正常的宗教活动都受到法律的保护。目前，中国有清真寺3万余座。在新疆有清真寺2.3万座。在西藏，有藏传佛教各类宗教活动场所1700多处。使用和发展少数民族语言文字中国各民族都有使用和发展自己语言文字的自由和权利。国家在五十年代组织人员对少数民族语言文字情况进行了全面调查，建立专门的民族语文工作机构和研究机构，培养民族语文专门人才，帮助少数民族创制、改进或改革文字，推进少数民族语文在各个领域中的运用。目前，中国55个少数民族中，除回族和满族通用汉语文外，其余53个民族都有自己的民族语言。有文字的民族有21个，共使用27种文字，其中壮、布依、苗、纳西、傈僳、哈尼、佤、侗、景颇（载佤文系）、土等十多个民族使用的13种文字是由政府帮助创制或改进的。在中国，无论在司法、行政、教育等领域，还是在国家政治和社会生活中，少数民族语言文字都得到广泛使用。在国家政治生活中，全国人民代表大会、中国人民政治协商会议召开的重要会议和全国或地区性重大活动，都提供蒙古、藏、维吾尔、哈萨克、朝鲜、彝、壮等民族语言文字的文件或语言翻译。民族自治地方的自治机关在执行职务的时候，都使用当地通用的一种或几种文字。在教育领域，各民族自治地方的自治机关根据国家的教育方针，依照法律规定，决定本地方的教育规划和各级各类学校的教学用语。少数民族为主的学校及其他教育机构，使用本民族或者当地通用的语言文字进行教学。在新闻、出版、广播、影视等领域，目前中国用17种少数民族文字出版近百种报纸，用11种少数民族文字出版73种杂志。中央人民广播电台和地方台用16种少数民族语言进行广播，地、州、县电台或广播站使用当地语言广播的达20多种。用少数民族语言摄制的故事片达3410部（集）、译制各类影片达10430部（集）。到1998年，全国36家民族类出版社用23种民族文字出版各类图书4100多种，印数达5300多万册。
III. Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities In China regional autonomy for ethnic minorities is a basic policy adopted by the Chinese government in line with the actual conditions of China, and also an important part of the political system of China. Regional autonomy for ethnic minorities means that under the unified leadership of the state regional autonomy is practiced in areas where people of ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities; in these areas organs of self-government are established for the exercise of autonomy and for people of ethnic minorities to become masters of their own areas and manage the internal affairs of their own regions. Autonomous areas for ethnic minorities in China include autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures and autonomous counties (banners). 1) Autonomous areas are established where people of one ethnic minority live in concentrated communities, such as the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; 2) autonomous areas are established where two ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, such as the Haixi Mongolian-Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province; 3) autonomous areas are established where several ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, such as the Longsheng Ethnic Minorities Autonomous County in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 4) autonomous areas are established within a larger autonomous area where people of an ethnic minority with a smaller population live in concentrated communities, such as the Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 5) autonomous areas are established for people of one ethnic minority who live in concentrated communities in different places, such as the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province and the Dachang Hui Autonomous County in Hebei Province. For places where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities but where autonomous areas and organs of self-government are not fit to be established because the areas and populations of the ethnic minorities are too small, ethnic townships are established so that the minority peoples there can also exercise their rights as masters of their homelands. Ethnic townships are a supplement to the system of regional autonomy. ．．．．．．		三、实行民族区域自治制度在中国，民族区域自治制度是中国政府结合中国实际情况采取的一项基本政策，也是中国的一项重要政治制度。中国的民族区域自治是在国家的统一领导下，各少数民族聚居的地方实行区域自治，设立自治机关，行使自治权，使少数民族人民当家作主，自己管理本自治地方的内部事务。中国的民族自治地方分为自治区、自治州、自治县(旗)三级。民族自治地方的建立有以下类型：（一）以一个少数民族聚居区为主建立的自治地方，如新疆维吾尔自治区等；（二）以两个少数民族聚居区联合建立的自治地方，如青海省海西蒙古族藏族自治州等；（三）以多个少数民族聚居区联合建立的自治地方，如广西龙胜各族自治县等；（四）在一个大的少数民族自治地方内，人口较少的少数民族聚居区建立自治地方，如广西壮族自治区的恭城瑶族自治县等；（五）一个民族在多处有聚居区的，建立多个自治地方，如宁夏回族自治区、甘肃省临夏回族自治州、河北省大厂回族自治县等。对于有些少数民族聚居地区，因地域太小、人口太少，不宜建立自治地方和设立自治机关的，中国政府通过在这些地区设立民族乡的办法，使这些地区的少数民族也能行使当家作主的权利。民族乡是对民族区域自治制度的一种补充。截止到1998年底，中国共建立了155个民族自治地方，其中自治区5个、自治州30个、自治县（旗）120个，还有1256个民族乡。在全国55个少数民族中，有44个民族建立了自治地方。实行自治的少数民族人口占少数民族人口总数的75%，民族自治地方行政区域的面积占全国总面积的64%。自治地方的数量和布局，与中国的民族分布和构成基本上相适应⑦。中国所以实行民族区域自治制度，主要基于以下三个因素：一是中国在历史上长期就是一个集中统一的国家，实行民族区域自治制度符合中国的国情和历史传统。二是长期以来中国的民族分布以大杂居、小聚居为主。从各民族的人口构成来看，汉族一直占全国人口的绝大多数，少数民族的人口占少数。中华人民共和国成立初期，少数民族总人口仅占全国总人口的６%。除西藏、新疆等个别地区外，大多数民族地区的少数民族人口比汉族都要少。少数民族人口虽然少，但分布区域很广，超过中国陆地面积的一半以上。长期的经济文化联系，形成了各民族只适宜于合作互助，而不适宜于分离的民族关系。三是自1840年鸦片战争以来，中国各民族都面临着反帝反封建、为民族解放而奋斗的共同任务和命运。在共御外敌、争取民族独立和解放的长期革命斗争中，中国各民族建立了休戚与共的亲密关系，形成了汉族离不开少数民族、少数民族离不开汉族、少数民族之间也相互离不开的政治认同。这就为建立一个统一的新中国，并在少数民族地区实行民族区域自治奠定了坚实的政治和社会基础。．．．．．．
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