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Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet
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西藏的民族区域自治
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【法宝引证码】
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Foreword
China is a united multi-ethnic country. The Han-Chinese population makes up more than 90 percent of the total population. The populations of the other 55 ethnic groups, including the Tibetan people, are relatively small, and such ethnic groups are customarily called ethnic minorities.
In order to protect the equal and autonomous rights of ethnic minorities, the Chinese Government, in view of the reality that ethnic-minority people live together over vast areas while some live in individual concentrated communities in small areas, regards exercise of regional ethnic autonomy in areas where ethnic minorities live in compact communities as a basic policy for solving the ethnic issue and a fundamental political system for implementation of the people's democracy. Regional ethnic autonomy means, under the unified leadership of the state, regional autonomy is exercised and organs of self-government are established in areas where various ethnic minorities live in compact communities, so that the people of ethnic minorities are their own masters exercising the right of self-government to administer local affairs and the internal affairs of their own ethnic groups.
The Tibet Autonomous Region is one of the five autonomous areas in China at the provincial level where regional ethnic autonomy is exercised, as well as an ethnic autonomous area with Tibetans as the main local inhabitants. In the Tibet Autonomous Region there are a dozen other ethnic groups besides the Tibetans — Han, Hui, Moinba, Lhoba, Naxi, Nu, Drung and others. They have lived in the region for generations, and Moinba, Lhoba and Naxi ethnic townships have been established there.
Since regional ethnic autonomy was implemented in 1965 in Tibet, the Tibetan people, in the capacity of masters of the nation and under the leadership of the Central Government, have actively participated in administration of the state and local affairs, fully exercised the rights of self-government bestowed by the Constitution and law, engaged in Tibet's modernization drive, enabled Tibetan society to develop by leaps and bounds, profoundly changed the old situation of poverty and backwardness in Tibet, and greatly enhanced the level of their own material, cultural and political life.
To recall the four glorious decades of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet, and to give an overview of the Tibetan people's dramatic endeavors to exercise their rights as their own masters and create a better life under regional ethnic autonomy is beneficial not only to summing up experiences and creating a new situation for regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet, but also to clarifying rights and wrongs, and increasing understanding of China's ethnic policy and the truth about Tibet among the international community.
| | 前 言
中国是一个统一的多民族国家，汉族人口占总人口的90%以上，包括藏族在内的其他55个民族人口较少，习惯上被称为少数民族。
为保障少数民族的平等和自治权利，中国政府根据中国少数民族分布以大杂居、小聚居为主等实际情况，把在少数民族聚居地方实行民族区域自治作为解决民族问题的一项基本政策和实行人民民主的一项基本政治制度。民族区域自治是在国家统一领导下，各少数民族聚居的地方实行区域自治，设立自治机关，由少数民族人民当家作主，行使管理本地方、本民族内部事务的自治权。
西藏自治区是中国实行民族区域自治的五个省级自治地方之一，是一个以藏族为主体的民族自治地方。在西藏自治区，除藏族外，还有汉、回、门巴、珞巴、纳西、怒、独龙等十几个民族同胞世代居住，并建立有门巴、珞巴、纳西等民族乡。
1965年西藏实行民族区域自治制度以来，西藏人民在中央政府的领导下，以主人翁的姿态积极参与管理国家和地方事务，充分行使宪法和法律赋予的自治权利，投身西藏的现代化建设，实现了西藏社会的跨越式发展，深刻地改变了西藏的贫穷落后面貌，大大提高了自身的物质文化生活和政治生活的水平。
回顾西藏实行民族区域自治近40年的光辉历程，全面展示西藏人民在民族区域自治制度下行使当家作主权利、创造美好生活的生动实践，不仅有助于总结经验、开创西藏民族区域自治的新局面，而且有助于澄清是非、增进国际社会对中国民族政策和西藏真实情况的了解。
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I. The Establishment and Development of Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet
Tibet, situated on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, is one of the border areas where ethnic minorities live in compact communities. In view of the then transport and communications conditions and realities of Tibet and other border areas where ethnic minorities live, Chinese central governments throughout history have adopted administrative methods different from those exercised in the heartland of the country. After Tibet became part of the territory of China in the 13th century, the central governments of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties and the Republic of China, while assuming the responsibility of approving the local administrative organs, and deciding and directly handling important affairs concerning Tibet, maintained, by and large, the region's original local social setup and ruling body, widely appointed upper-strata ecclesiastic and secular members to manage local affairs, and gave the Tibetan local government and officials extensive decision-making power. This played a historically positive role in safeguarding the unification of the country, but as the feudal autocratic rulers in various periods exercised an ethnic policy marked by ethnic discrimination and oppression, keeping the original social system and maintaining the power of the local ruling class for their administration of Tibet, they did not solve, nor could they possibly solve, the issue of ethnic equality and that of enabling the local people to become masters of their own affairs.
Even in the first half of the 20th century, Tibet remained a society of feudal serfdom under theocracy, one even darker and more backward than medieval Europe. The ecclesiastical and secular serf owners, though accounting for less than five percent of the population of Tibet, controlled the personal freedom of the serfs and slaves who made up more than 95 percent of the population of Tibet, as well as the overwhelming part of the means of production. By resorting to the rigidly stratified"13-Article Code" and"16-Article Code," and extremely savage punishments, including gouging out eyes, cutting off ears, tongues, hands and feet, pulling out tendons, throwing people into rivers or off cliffs, they practiced cruel economic exploitation, political oppression and mental control of the serfs and slaves. The right to subsistence of the broad masses of serfs and slaves was not protected, let alone political rights.
After the Opium War of 1840, China was reduced to a semi-colonial, semi-feudal country. Tibet, like other parts of China, suffered from the aggression of imperialist powers, which grabbed all kinds of special privileges by means of unequal treaties, subjected Tibet to colonial control and exploitation, and, at the same time, groomed separatists among the upper ruling strata of Tibet, in an attempt to sever Tibet from China. Therefore, the removal of the fetters of imperialism and feudal serfdom became a historically paramount task for safeguarding the unification of the country and realizing the development of Tibet.
The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 ended the dark history of the semi-colonial, semi-feudal China, realized unification of the country, unity of ethnic groups and people's democracy, and brought hope to the Tibetan people that they could control their own destiny in the large family of the motherland. It was expressly stipulated in the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), which had the status of the provisional Constitution, that "All ethnic groups within the territory of the People's Republic of China are equal, unity and mutual assistance shall be practiced, discrimination against and oppression of ethnic groups, and acts undermining the unity of the ethnic groups shall be prohibited; the people of all ethnic minorities shall have the freedom to use and develop their own spoken and written languages, and to preserve or reform their own ways and customs and religious beliefs; and regional ethnic autonomy shall be practiced in areas where ethnic minorities live in compact communities." In the first Constitution of the People's Republic of China, promulgated in 1954, the principles of equality, unity and mutual assistance among all ethnic groups, and the system of regional ethnic autonomy were officially included in the fundamental law of the state. Proceeding from the fundamental interests of the Tibetan people, the Central People's Government has profoundly changed the destiny of Tibet and realized and developed the rights of the Tibetan people as masters of their own affairs through great strategic decisions and measures such as peaceful liberation of Tibet, promotion of democratic reforms, establishment of the autonomous region, carrying out socialist construction, reform and opening-up.
— Peaceful liberation laid the foundation for regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet.
On May 23, 1951, the "Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" (“17-Article Agreement" for short) was signed, and Tibet was peacefully liberated. The peaceful liberation put an end to imperialist aggression against Tibet, enabled the Tibetan people to shake off political and economic fetters, safeguarded the unification of state sovereignty and territorial integrity, realized equality and unity between the Tibetan ethnic group and all other ethnic groups throughout the country as well as the internal unity of Tibet, and laid the foundation for regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet.
The "17-Article Agreement" provides that" According to the ethnic policy in the Common Program of the CPPCC, under the unified leadership of the Central People's Government, the Tibetan people shall have the right to exercise regional ethnic autonomy." According to the provisions of the"17-Article Agreement," the Preparatory Group of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region was established in November 1954, and began preparations for the establishment of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. In March 1955, the State Council held a special meeting to deliberate and adopt the "Decision of the State Council on Establishment of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region," which expressly stipulates that "The Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region shall be responsible for preparatory work for the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and an organ with the nature of a political power and accountable to the State Council, its principal task being to prepare for the exercise of regional ethnic autonomy in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, the '17-Article Agreement' and the actual situation of Tibet." In April 1956, the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region was established in Lhasa, with the 14th Dalai Lama as the chairman, the 10th Panchen Lama the first vice-chairman and Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme the secretary-general. The establishment of the Preparatory Committee enabled Tibet to have a consultative work organ with the nature of a political power, and vigorously promoted the realization of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet.
— The Democratic Reform cleared the way for regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet.
When Tibet was peacefully liberated, in consideration of the reality of Tibet, the"17-Article Agreement," while confirming the necessity for reform of the Tibetan social system, provided that "The Central Government will not use coercion to implement such a reform, and it is to be carried out by the Tibetan local government on its own; when the people demand reform, the matter should be settled by way of consultation with the leading personnel of Tibet." But in face of the ever-growing demand of the people for democratic reform, some people in the upper ruling strata of Tibet, in order to preserve feudal serfdom, and supported by imperialist forces, staged an armed rebellion all along the line on March 10, 1959, in an attempt to separate Tibet from China. On March 28 of the same year, the State Council announced the dismissal of the original local government of Tibet, and empowered the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region to exercise the functions and powers of the local government of Tibet, with the 10th Panchen Lama as its acting chairman. The Central People's Government and the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region led the Tibetan people in quickly quelling the rebellion, implemented the Democratic Reform, overthrew the feudal serfdom under theocracy, and abolished the feudal hierarchic system, the relations of personal dependence, and all savage punishments. As a result, a million serfs and slaves were emancipated, and became masters of the country as well as of the region of Tibet, acquired the citizens' rights and freedom specified in the Constitution and law, and swept away the obstacles, in respect of social system, to the exercise of regional ethnic autonomy.
— The establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region marked the full implementation of the regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet.
After the Democratic Reform, the Tibetan people enjoyed all the political rights enjoyed by people of all other ethnic groups throughout China. In 1961, a general election, the first of its kind in Tibetan history, was held all over Tibet. For the first time, the former serfs and slaves were able to enjoy democratic rights as their own masters, and participated in the election of organs of state power at all levels in the region. In September 1965, the First Session of the First People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region was convened, at which the organ of self-government of the Tibet Autonomous Region and its leaders were elected, and the founding of the Tibet Autonomous Region was officially proclaimed. Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme was elected chairman of the People's Council of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Many emancipated serfs took up leading posts in state organs at various levels in the region. The establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region marked the establishment of the people's democratic power in Tibet and the commencement of exercise of regional ethnic autonomy in an all-round way. From then on, the Tibetan people were entitled to enjoy the right to administer their own affairs in the region and, together with the people throughout the country, embarked on a road of socialist development.
— The reform and opening-up has opened a vast horizon for the Tibetan people to fully exercise the right of regional ethnic autonomy.
After China adopted the policy of reform and opening to the outside world, Deng Xiaoping said expressly that the key to the exercise of regional ethnic autonomy lay with development of the ethnic-minority areas. In Tibet, he pointed out, "The important things to consider are how the Tibetan people will benefit from their presence and what is will take to stimulate rapid development in the region and bring it into the forefront of the drive for modernization." (Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, English Edition, Vol. III, pp. 242-243, Foreign Languages Press, Beijing) This affirmed the guiding principle for an all-round exercise of regional ethnic autonomy in Tibet in the new era.
In 1984, the state promulgated and implemented the "Law of the People's Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy," making regional ethnic autonomy a basic political system of the state, setting out comprehensive provisions regarding the rights of self-government of the ethnic autonomous areas in political, economic, cultural and other spheres, and their relations with the Central Government. It has thus provided a powerful legal safeguard for the full exercise by the Tibetan people of the right of self-government. From 1984 to 2001, in light of the reality of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Central Government convened four Forums on Work in Tibet; set the guiding principles, major tasks and development plans for work in Tibet timely in the new era; made the important decision to devote special attention to Tibet and get all the other parts of China to aid Tibet; formulated a number of special favorable policies and measures for speeding up the development of Tibet; formed a mechanism for all-round aid for the modernization of Tibet, by which the state would directly invest in construction projects in the region, the Central Government would provide financial subsidies, and the other parts of the country would provide counterpart aid. All this powerfully propelled economic development and social progress in Tibet, greatly enhanced the living standards of the Tibetan people, and guaranteed the realization of equality and the right of self-government of the Tibetan people.
| | 一、民族区域自治制度在西藏的建立和发展
西藏位于青藏高原，是中国的边疆少数民族聚居地区之一。中国历代中央政府根据当时的交通通讯条件和西藏等边疆少数民族地区的实际情况，对这些地区采取了与内地有所不同的管理方式。自公元13世纪西藏成为中国领土一部分以来,中国的元、明、清、民国等历代中央政府在规定西藏地方行政机构、决定和直接处理西藏重大事务的前提下，基本保持当地原有的社会组织形式和统治机构，广泛任用当地僧俗上层管理地方事务，给予西藏地方政府和官员较大的自主权。这在历史上对于维护国家统一发挥了积极作用。但是，由于历代封建专制统治者实行的民族政策渗透着民族歧视和压迫，对西藏采取保持当地原有社会制度和维护当地统治阶级的权力来进行管理，没有也不可能解决民族平等和人民当家作主问题。
直到20世纪上半叶，西藏仍然处于比欧洲中世纪还要黑暗、落后的政教合一的封建农奴制社会。占人口不到5%的僧俗农奴主控制着占人口95%以上的农奴和奴隶的人身自由和绝大多数生产资料，通过等级森严的《十三法典》、《十六法典》和断手、剁足、剜目、割耳、抽筋、割舌、投水、推崖等极为野蛮的刑罚，对农奴和奴隶进行残酷的经济剥削、政治压迫和精神控制，广大农奴和奴隶连生存权都得不到保障，根本没有政治权利可言。
1840年鸦片战争以后，中国沦为半殖民地、半封建社会，西藏与全国其他地方一样，遭到帝国主义列强的侵略。帝国主义列强通过不平等条约攫取种种特权，对西藏进行殖民控制和剥削，同时在西藏少数上层统治者中极力培植分裂势力，阴谋将西藏从中国分裂出去。因此，摆脱帝国主义和封建农奴制的枷锁，历史地成为维护国家统一和实现西藏发展的首要任务。
1949年中华人民共和国成立，结束了中国半殖民地、半封建社会的黑暗历史，实现了国家统一、民族团结和人民民主，为西藏人民在祖国大家庭中掌握自己的命运带来了希望。1949年通过的具有临时宪法地位的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》明确规定：中华人民共和国境内各民族一律平等，实行团结互助，禁止民族间的歧视、压迫和分裂各民族团结的行为；各少数民族均有发展其语言文字、保持或改革风俗习惯及宗教信仰的自由；各少数民族聚居的地区，应实行民族的区域自治。1954年颁布实施的第一部《中华人民共和国宪法》正式将各民族平等、团结、互助的原则和民族区域自治制度纳入国家根本大法。中央人民政府从西藏人民的根本利益出发，通过实现西藏和平解放、推动民主改革、建立自治区、进行社会主义建设和改革开放等重大战略决策措施，深刻地改变了西藏的命运，实现和发展了西藏人民当家作主的权利。
—和平解放为西藏的民族区域自治奠定了基础。1951年5月23日，中央人民政府与西藏地方政府签订《关于和平解放西藏办法的协议》（简称“十七条协议”），西藏实现和平解放。和平解放使西藏摆脱了帝国主义势力的侵略及其政治、经济羁绊，维护了国家主权统一和领土完整，实现了藏族与全国各民族的平等、团结以及西藏内部的团结，为西藏实行民族区域自治奠定了基础。
“十七条协议”规定：“根据中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领的民族政策，在中央人民政府统一领导之下，西藏人民有实行民族区域自治的权利。”根据“十七条协议”的规定，1954年11月，西藏自治区筹备委员会筹备小组成立，着手筹建西藏自治区筹备委员会。1955年３月，国务院召开专门会议，研究通过了《国务院关于成立西藏自治区筹备委员会的决定》，明确规定：西藏自治区筹备委员会是负责筹备西藏自治区带政权性质的机关，受国务院领导；其主要任务是依照宪法规定及“十七条协议”和西藏的具体情况，筹备在西藏实施区域自治。1956年4月，西藏自治区筹备委员会在拉萨成立，第十四世达赖担任筹委会主任委员，第十世班禅担任第一副主任委员，阿沛·阿旺晋美任秘书长。西藏自治区筹备委员会的成立，使西藏有了一个带政权性质的协商办事机构，有力地推动了西藏民族区域自治的实现。
—民主改革为西藏实行民族区域自治扫清了道路。西藏和平解放时，考虑到西藏的实际情况，“十七条协议”在肯定对西藏社会制度进行改革的必要性的同时，规定：“有关西藏的各项改革事宜，中央不加强迫。西藏地方政府应自动进行改革，人民提出改革要求时，得采取与西藏领导人员协商的方法解决之。” 但是，西藏上层统治集团中的一些人面对人民日益高涨的民主改革的要求，为维护封建农奴制度“永远不变”，在帝国主义势力的支持下，于1959年3月10日发动全面武装叛乱，图谋把西藏从中国分裂出去。同年3月28日，国务院宣布解散原西藏地方政府，由西藏自治区筹委会行使西藏地方政府职权，第十世班禅代理主任委员。中央人民政府和西藏自治区筹委会领导西藏人民，迅速平息叛乱，并实行民主改革，推翻了政教合一的封建农奴制度，废除了封建等级制度、人身依附关系和各种野蛮刑罚，百万农奴和奴隶获得翻身解放，成为国家和西藏地方的主人，获得了宪法和法律规定的公民权利和自由，为实行民族区域自治扫清了社会制度障碍。
—西藏自治区的建立标志着民族区域自治制度在西藏的全面贯彻实施。民主改革以后，西藏人民与全国各族人民一样享有了平等的政治权利。1961年，西藏各地开始实行西藏历史上从未有过的普选，翻身农奴和奴隶破天荒第一次获得了当家作主的民主权利，选举产生了各级政权。1965年9月，西藏自治区第一届人民代表大会第一次会议召开，选举产生了西藏自治区自治机关及其领导人，宣告了西藏自治区的正式成立。阿沛·阿旺晋美当选为自治区人民委员会主席，一大批翻身农奴担任了自治区各级政权机关的领导职务。西藏自治区的成立标志着西藏建立了人民民主政权，开始全面实行民族区域自治制度，西藏人民从此享有了自主管理本地区事务的权利，与全国人民一道走上社会主义的发展道路。
—改革开放为西藏人民充分行使民族区域自治权利开辟了广阔的天地。中国实行改革开放以后，邓小平明确提出实行民族区域自治的关键是使少数民族地区发展起来，在西藏，“关键是看怎样对西藏人民有利，怎样才能使西藏很快发展起来，在中国四个现代化建设中走进前列”（《邓小平文选》第三卷，第247页），从而为西藏在新时期更加全面地实施民族区域自治确立了指导方针。
1984年,国家颁布实施了《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》，将民族区域自治制度确立为国家的一项基本政治制度，对少数民族自治地方在政治、经济、文化等各方面的自治权利及与中央政府的关系做了系统的规定，为西藏人民充分行使自治权利提供了有力的法律保障。从1984年到2001年，中央政府根据西藏自治区的实际，先后召开了四次西藏工作座谈会，适时确定了新时期西藏工作的指导思想、主要任务和发展规划，做出了中央政府关心西藏、全国各地支援西藏的重大决策，制定了一系列加快西藏发展的特殊优惠政策和措施，形成了国家直接投资西藏建设项目、中央政府实行财政补贴、全国进行对口支援的全方位支持西藏现代化建设的格局，有力地推动了西藏的经济发展和社会进步，极大地提高了西藏人民的生活水平，保证了西藏人民平等和自治权利的实现。
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II. The Tibetan People Enjoy Full Political Right of Autonomy
The Tibetan people enjoy, according to law, the equal right of participation in the administration of state affairs as well as the right of self-government to manage affairs of their own region and ethnic group.
The Tibetan people enjoy the democratic right to be masters according to law. The Chinese Constitution provides that all citizens of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnic status, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, or length of residence. Since the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Tibetan people have actively exercised the right to vote and stand for election bestowed by the Constitution and law, participated in the election of deputies to the National People's Congress (NPC) as well as the people's congresses at all levels in the Tibet Autonomous Region, and participated, through deputies to the people's congresses, in administration of state and local affairs. In 2002, when re-election at the regional, prefectural (city), county and township (town) levels took place in Tibet, 93.09 percent of electors in the autonomous region turned out to directly take part in the election at the county level. In certain places, the participation rate of local electors reached 100 percent. Among the elected people's deputies, the proportion of deputies of the Tibetan and other minority ethnic groups was more than 80 percent at both regional and city (prefectural) levels, and more than 90 percent at both county and township (town) levels.
．．．．．． | | 二、西藏人民在政治上享有充分的自治权
西藏人民依法享有平等参与管理国家事务的权利，同时享有自主管理本地区和本民族事务的自治权利。
西藏人民依法享有当家作主的民主权利。《中华人民共和国宪法》规定，凡年满18岁的中国公民，不分民族、种族、性别、职业、家庭出身、宗教信仰、教育程度和居住期限，都有选举权和被选举权。西藏自治区成立以来，西藏人民积极行使宪法和法律赋予的选举权和被选举权，参加选举全国和自治区各级人民代表大会的代表，并通过人大代表参与管理国家和地方事务。2002年，在西藏的自治区、地（市）、县、乡（镇）四级换届选举中，全区有93.09%的选民参加了县级直接选举，有些地方选民参选率达到100%。在选举出的人大代表中，藏族和其他少数民族代表所占的比例,在自治区和地市两级达80%以上，在县、乡(镇)两级达90%以上。
藏族和其他少数民族干部成为西藏自治区干部的主体，充分行使当家作主的权利。宪法规定，民族自治地方的人民代表大会常务委员会中应当由实行区域自治的民族的公民担任主任或者副主任；自治区主席、自治州州长、自治县县长由实行区域自治的民族的公民担任。西藏自治区成立以来，先后6任（含现任在内）自治区人民代表大会常务委员会主任和7任（含现任在内）自治区人民政府主席均为藏族公民。自1959年“中国人民政治协商会议西藏委员会”成立以来，共5任自治区政协主席均由藏族公民担任。据统计，目前,藏族和其他少数民族在自治区人大常委会主任、副主任中占87.5%;在自治区人大常委会委员中占69.23%;在自治区主席、副主席中占57%；在自治区政协常委和委员中分别占90.42％和89.4％。藏族和其他少数民族公民占自治区、地(市)、县三级国家机关组成人员的 77.97%，分别占三级人民法院和人民检察院干部总数的69.82%和82.25%。
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